Received        ....C&gs....  1 87^, 


CHEMISTRY 


OF  THE 


FARM  AND  THE  SEA. 


WITH    OTHER 


«J?j 

FAMILIAR  CHEMICAL    ESSAYS. 


JAS.  R.  NICHOLS,  M.D., 

EDITOE  "BOSTON  JOURNAL  OF  CHEMISTRY,"  MEMBEE  OP 

MASS.  INSTITUTE  OF  TECHNOLOGY,  ETC. 


BOSTON: 
A.  WILLIAMS  &  CO.,  100  WASHINGTON  ST. 

1867. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1867,  by 

A.  WILLIAMS  &  Co., 
In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  District  of  Massachusetts. 


Stereotyped  at  the  Boston  Stereotype  Foundry, 
No.  4  Spring  Lane. 


PREFATORY    NOTE. 


THE  brief  chemical  essays  contained  in  this  volume 
are  presented  substantially  as  they  have  appeared 
in  the  form  of  addresses  before  agricultural  and  scien- 
tific bodies,  and  as  contributions  to  the  Boston  Journal 
of  Chemistry,  during  the  years  1866  and  1867.  The 
unusual  favor  with  which  they  were  received  by  large 
numbers  of  listeners  and  readers,  has  led  to  their  re- 
appearance in  the  more  convenient  and  permanent 
form  of  a  book.  The  aim  has  been  to  present  scien- 
tific facts  and  principles  in  a  familiar  way,  so  as  to 
interest  and  instruct  those  not  specially  acquainted 
with  matters  of  science,  and  if  the  essays  prove  ac- 
ceptable and  useful  to  the  new  class  of  readers  to 
whom  they  are  now  introduced,  the  end  of  their  pub- 
lication will  be  fully  reached. 

J.   R.  N. 


LABORATORY,  150  CONGRESS  STREET, 
BOSTON,  May,  1867. 


(3) 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  FARM, 7 

CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  SEA, 47 

CHEMISTRY  OF  A  BOWL  OF  MILK,  .        .        -55 

CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  DWELLING,  ...  63 
CHEMISTRY  OF  A  KERNEL  OF  CORN,  .  .  -85 
OBSCURE  SOURCES  OF  DISEASE,  .  .  .  91 
LOCAL  DECOMPOSITION  IN  LEAD  AOJJEDUCT  PIPES,  97 
BREAD  AND  BREAD-MAKING,  .  >  .  .  .103 
CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  SUN,  .  .  .  in 

(6) 


CHEMISTRY   OF   THE  FARM. 


IN  considering  the  Chemistry  of  the  Farm,  we  must, 
first  of  all,  bring  to  notice  that  accumulation  of  won- 
derful and  important  facts,  which  unfolds  the  philosophy 
of  the  origin,  the  structure,  and  the  growth  of  plants.  In 
darkness  intense  as  midnight  was  this  knowledge  involved 
for  centuries,  and  it  was  only  by  the  light  of  those  fires  in 
which  were  buried  the  crucibles  of  the  chemist,  that  the 
dark  cloud  was  pierced,  and  all  around  and  beneath  illu- 
minated. 

The  germination  and  growth  of  a  plant  is  strictly  a 
chemical  problem,  and  intimate  indeed  is  the  connection 
of  the  soil  cultivator  with  its  perfect  development.  He 
has  not  the  power  to  compel  the  aggregation  of  atoms ; 
the  unseen  Manipulator  whom  we  designate  the  "  Vital 
Force"  is  the  chemist  who  performs  this  marvellous 
work,  and  whose  skill  far  exceeds  all  human  capability. 
His  laboratory  is  no  circumscribed  one,  bounded  by  par- 
titions of  wood  and  stone,  but  its  area  extends  farther 
than  the  eye  can  reach,  and  its  enclosing  wall  is  the  great 
rotunda  whose  span  stretches  beyond  even  the  imagina- 
tion of  men. 


8  CHEMISTRY    OF    THE    FARM. 

The  farmer  labors  within  this  great  rotunda,  and  in  the 
immediate  presence  of  the  great  Chemist,  who  invites  him 
to  aid  in  his  work.  Day  by  day  he  witnesses  his  mar- 
vellous power,  in  calling  from  the  slumbering  earth  the 
tender  blade  of  grass,  the  beautiful  flower,  the  useful 
cereal  and  leguminous  plants,  the  creeping  vine,  and  the 
spreading  oak  of  the  forest. 

He  can  promote  or  destroy  the  work  of  the  great 
Creator  and  Architect ;  he  can  retard  or  facilitate  the 
chemical  changes  which  are.  going  on  so  continuously 
and  vigorously  around  and  beneath  his  feet. 

And  what  are  these  changes  ?  A  knowledge  of  them 
teaches  the  great  secret  of  plant  growth.  It  unfolds  the 
philosophy  of  that  fact,  incomprehensible  to  so  many, 
how,  from  the  ethereal  atmosphere,  almost  alone,  the 
solid  forms  of  organized  structures  are  elaborated. 

How  wonderful  is  the  fact,  that  a  large  proportion  of 
the  material  of  the  grains,  and  fruits,  and  grasses  which 
we  gather  into  our  barns  and  granaries,  is  composed  of 
the  constituents  of  common  air !  Perhaps  it  is  even  more 
wonderful,  that  the  solid  and  inflexible  fibres  of  the  oak, 
the  hickory,  the  beech,  and  scores  of  other  woods,  exceed- 
ing even  these  in  density  and  hardness,  are  formed  from 
the  unstable  medium  we  breathe,  and  which  seems  so 
utterly  devoid  of  materiality  and  solidity. 

Chemistry  alone  is  capable  of  teaching  us  the  phi- 
losophy of  that  aggregation  of  atoms  by  which  plant 
organisms  are  developed  and  increased,  until  full  maturity 
is  attained.  It  teaches  us  respecting  the  office  the  soil, 
the  rain,  the  air  subserves  in  accomplishing  the  work ; 
and  the  information  it  furnishes  is  minute,  wonderfully 


CHEMISTRY    OF    THE    FARM.  9 

exact,  and  full  of  interest  to  the  student.  It  teaches  the 
interesting  fact,  that  the  soil  originates  from  the  solid 
rock  which  constitutes  the  crust  of  the  earth,  and  explains 
the  nature  of  the  forces  which  have  produced  crumbling 
and  decay  in  the  same.  Its  teachings  are  so  important 
in  this  particular,  that  we  will  stop  a  moment  to  con- 
sider them. 

If  we  procure  from  one  of  our  hills  a  piece  of  granite 
of  either  of  the  different  varieties,  and  finely  pulverize 
and  analyze  it,  we  shall  find  it  to  contain  all  the  con- 
stituent elements  of  which  all  other  rocks  consist.  Hence 
we  shall  be  led  to  conclude,  that  they  all  originate  from 
the  granite  ;  that  this  is  the  parent  rock  of  quartz,  talc, 
serpentine,  feldspar,  mica,  &c.,  from  the  crumbling  of 
which  our  soils  have  been  formed.  By  the  decomposition 
and  crumbling  of  the  mica  and  feldspar  in  a  particular 
region,  one  kind  of  soil  is  formed ;  by  limestone  in  other 
localities,  another  kind  ;  and  hence  it  is  plain  to  see  that 
a  variety  of  soils  must  result  from  the  disintegration  of 
the  different  kinds  of  rocks.  A  very  clear  conception 
of  the  work  of  exfoliation  may  be  obtained  by  supposing 
an  individual  to  have  been  placed  upon  our  planet  at 
a  time  when  it  was  a  hard,  impenetrable  mass  of  rock. 
Suppose  him  to  have  lived  through  all  the  great  epochs 
of  time  until  the  present,  and  to  have  witnessed  the 
gradual  metamorphosis  from  barren  sterility  to  the  ex- 
treme of  vegetable  luxuriance.  Suppose  him  capable  of 
witnessing  the  gradual  crumbling  of  the  adamantine 
masses,  and  the  formation  of  cultivatable  soils.  If  the 
agencies  in  past  ages  wrere  the  same  as  are  now  at  work, 
he  would  have  seen  that  every  flash  of  lightning  shooting 


10  CHEMISTRY   OF   THE   FARM. 

athwart  the  sky,  by  decomposing  the  atmosphere,  pro- 
duced a  trace  of  nitric  acid,  and  that  this,  falling  upon 
the  rocks,  aided  in  the  work  of  separation.  He  would 
have  seen  that  the  carbonic  acid  of  the  air,  the  rapid 
freezing  and  thawing,  the  mechanical  effects  of  rain,  the 
attrition  of  dust  moved  by  winds,  all  conspired  to  reduce 
the  seemingly  defiant  quartz,  and  talc,  and  gneiss,  to  a 
finely  subdivided  powder  capable  of  sustaining  vegetable 
life.  The  chemistry  of  these  atoms  of  dust  is  very  easily 
understood.  The  Creator,  in  the  beginning,  made  use  of 
about  sixty  different  kinds  of  materials  in  constructing 
our  planet,  and  he  selected  only  ten  or  twelve  of  these 
from  which  to  form  all  kinds  of  rocks.  It  follows  that 
the  dust  atoms  must  be  made  up  of  the  same  materials 
.as  the  parent  rock.  From  them  the  mineral  food  of 
plants  is  obtained.  The  inorganic  or  mineral  food  which 
plants  require  are  principally  silica,  lime,  magnesia,  sul- 
phur, potash,  and  soda.  Their  presence  in  the  soil  is 
indispensable,  as  without  them  no  plant  growth  could 
begin  and  continue.  A  plant  has  as  capricious  an  appe- 
tite for  its  mineral  food  as  a  human  being  has  for  his  food, 
and  each  variety  calls  for  its  appropriate  nutriment ;  and 
if  nature  does  not  supply  it  sufficiently  in  the  soil,  or  if 
we  do  not  step  in  and  furnish  it,  it  famishes  and  dies. 
There  is  as  much  propriety  in  saying,  when  we  observe 
a  stalk  of  corn  struggling  for  existence  in  an  impoverished 
soil,  that  it  is  starving  to  death,  as  there  is  in  saying  that 
an  animal  famishes  when  food  is  withheld.  Let  us  ob- 
serve still  further  the  striking  analogy  between  plant  life 
and  animal  life.  I  have  said  that  both  have  their  appro- 
priate, chosen  food.  If  we  place  before  a  cow  or  horse 


CHEMISTRY    OF    THE    FARM.  II 

some  forms  of  food  which  man  requires,  and  withhold 
hay  and  grain,  they  will  ultimately  perish.  Thus  it 
is  with  vegetables.  If  we  plant  peas  or  beans  upon 
a  field  where  no  trace  of  lime  is  found  in  the  soil, 
although  it  may  be  rich  in  minerals  which  other  plants 
would  live  and  thrive  upon,  they  will  as  certainly  famish 
as  though  we  sowed  them  in  the  granite  quarries  of 
Quincy,  or  among  the  glaciers  of  the  Alps.  To  attempt 
to  feed  the  different  varieties  of  plants  upon  the  dust 
atoms  of  a  single  kind  of  rock,  would  be  as  absurd  as 
to  gather  the  different  races  of  men  together,  and  en- 
deavor to  sustain  them  upon  the  watery  fruits  of  the 
tropics.  While  the  seething  negro  would  satiate  his 
appetite,  and  grow  lusty,  upon  the  watermelon  and  the 
banana,  the  greasy  Esquimaux  would  cry  aloud  for  his 
train  oil  and  blubber ;  and  if  withheld,  he  would  proba- 
bly die  from  the  cravings  of  unappeased  hunger.  A  plant 
is  like  an  infant,  as  respects  the  preparation  of  its  food. 
It  has  no  teeth  to  masticate,  no  salivary  glands  to  pour 
out  diluting  fluids,  to  render  digestible  its  rocky  aliment, 
and  yet  it  can  receive  it  only  in  a  liquid,  soluble  form. 
Its  mouths  are  microscopic,  and  nothing  not  minutely 
subdivided  can  pass  their  portals. 

Farmers  are  men  nurses,  laboring  among  their  plant 
children,  pulverizing  and  moistening  their  food,  just  as 
the  female  nurse,  within  the  precincts  of  the  children's 
nursery,  is  busily  employed  in  preparing  and  rendering 
easily  digestible  that  which  the  appetite  of  her  little 
troop  so  urgently  demands. 

Nature  does  much,  by  the  activity  of  those  forces 
already  alluded  to,  in  preparing  the  inorganic  food  of 


12  CHEMISTRY    OF   THE    FARM. 

vegetables.  Although  the  rocks  have  crumbled  into 
powder  of  varied  fineness,  and  the  mass  of  this  consti- 
tutes the  soil,  yet  the  largest  portion  is  still  very  far  from 
being  fine  enough  to  be  appropriated  by  plants.  Minute 
atoms  of  granite,  of  limestone  and  feldspar,  scarcely  per- 
ceptible without  the  aid  of  the  microscope,  pervade  every 
soil,  and  must  be  further  acted  upon  by  carbonic  acid 
from  the  air,  by  rain,  by  mechanical  forces,  &c.,  before 
they  are  of  any  use  to  our  maize  plants,  tubers,  grains, 
or  vines. 

It  will  be  clearly  understood,  that  we  may  possess  land 
rich  in  the  mineral  substances  which  a  particular  grain 
requires,  and  yet,  after  successive  crops,  it  may  languish 
and  fail  for  the  wrant  of  a  substance  already  in  the  soil, 
but  which  is  not  in  a  condition  to  be  used  by  the  grain. 
In  this  we  see  the  connection  of  chemistry  with  the  busi- 
ness of  the  farmer  in  the  tillage  of  his  lands.  He  plies 
vigorously  the  plough,  the  hoe,  and  the  cultivator ;  he 
digs,  he  pulverizes,  he  reverses  the  condition  of  the  soil ; 
bringing  up  to  the  surface  that  which  wasjDuried,  and  bury- 
ing that  which  was  upon  the  surface  ;  and  does  he  suppose 
that  the  vigor  he  thereby  imparts  to  the  soil  and  plants 
is  due  solely  to  the  mechanical  effects  of  his  labors  ? 
There  are  great  benefits  thus  produced  which  are  far 
from  being  mechanical.  It  is  indeed  beneficial  to  loosen 
the  soil  so  as  to  prevent  binding,  and  to  aid  in  the  perco- 
lation of  water  through  it ;  but  some  of  the  greatest 
benefits  of  active  tillage  are  strictly  chemical  in  their 
nature.  By  stirring  the  soil,  atmospheric  air  is  let  in ; 
and  the  carbonic  acid  it  contains  fixes  its  corrosive  teeth 
into  those  minute  grains  of  rock,  and  rends  them  asunder. 


CHEMISTRY    OF    THE    FARM.  13 

They  are  thus  so  changed,  that,  instead  of  being  rejected 
by  the  hungry  plants,  they  are  seized  with  avidity,  and 
consumed.  And,  further,  by  tillage  there  are  chemical 
effects  produced  in  that  part  of  the  soil  not  mineral  or 
inorganic,  by  which  decay  or  putrefactive  change  is  car- 
ried forward,  and  plant  food  produced  in  large  quantities. 
Thus  chemistry  conclusively  shows  that,  by  mechanical 
labor  alone  upon  a  soil,  nutriment  is  afforded  which  is 
equivalent  to  the  application  of  manure  ;  and  with  these 
facts  distinctly  in  mind,  the  farmer  need  not  be  surprised 
at  the  energy  with  which  his  crops  shoot  forward  after 
the  application  of  the  hoe  and  cultivator. 

It  was  chemistry  that  taught  the  husbandman  the  im- 
portance of  subsoil  ploughing.  There  are  many  farmers 
who  are  unable  to  overcome  their  prejudices  sufficiently 
to  try  the  experiment  of  deep  ploughing  upon  their  soils. 
They  suppose  the  whole  virtue  of  their  lands  lies  in  the 
black  mould  or  humus  upon  the  surface ;  and  if  they  go 
below,  and  bring  up  sand,  and  yellow  or  pale  earth,  and 
mingle  with  it,  of  course  it  must  dilute  and  impair  its 
fertility.  They  certainly  know  that  their  soils  are  super- 
ficial and  weak  enough,  without  going  down  to  bring  up 
that  which  cannot  sustain,  as  they  suppose,  a  blade  of 
grass.  They  reason  thus  because  chemistry  has  not  taught 
them  its  important  lessons.  How  important  to  remember 
that  that  which  lies  deep  below  the  mould  came  from  the 
rocks,  and  is  rich  oftentimes  in  their  mineral  constituents. 
It  needs  only  to  be  brought  up  to  the  surface,  so  that  air 
and  rain  can  reach  it,  to  promote  chemical  decomposition, 
and  fit  it  for  important  plant  aliment. 

Chemistr}    teaches  that   plants  do  not  obtain  all   the 


14  CHEMISTRY   OF   THE    FARM. 

elements  of  their  growth  from  tlie  mingled  rock  dust  and 
humus  constituting  the  soil.  The  atmosphere  comes  in 
for  a  share  in  rearing  the  structure,  and  the  aid  it  renders 
is  voluntary,  and  entirely  independent  of  help  from  the 
husbandman.  He  cannot  promote  his  interests  and  in- 
crease his  crops  by  endeavors  to  influence  atmospheric 
action  upon  his  plants.  It  is  only  through  the  soil  that 
he  is  able  to  do  this.  Plants  derive  their  carbon,  or  char- 
coal, chiefly  from  the  air.  The  great  bulk  of  all  plants  is 
carbon,  and  consequently  we  see  how  important  is  the 
aid  derived  from  that  source. 

How  few  of  us  call  to  mind  the  fact,  as  we  sit  around 
our  comfortable  hearth-stones  in  the  long  evenings  of  win- 
ter, and  witness  the  gradual  transmutation  of  the  blazing 
pile  of  wood  into  black  lustrous  charcoal,  and  then,  by 
further  combustion,  apparently  into  a  heap  of  ashes,  that 
there  is  in  the  one  a  constituent  of  the  very  winds  from 
which  we  are  so  effectually  sheltered,  and  in  the  other  a 
portion  of  the  soil  abstracted  from  our  fields.  I  am  per- 
plexed to  understand  how  any  one  can  witness  these  won- 
derful changes  from  day  to  day,  and  not  have  sufficient 
curiosity  awakened  to  be  led  to  interrogate  that  beautiful 
science  which  is  competent  to  answer  every  question  and 
solve  all  difficulties. 

The  facts  as  stated  are  certainly  paradoxical  and  diffi- 
cult of  apprehension.  There  is  no  charcoal  in  the  earth, 
none  in  the  air ;  and  yet,  if  we  allow  fire  to  act  upon 
a  bit  of  the  whitest  wood,  or  a  grain  of  wheat,  or  corn,  an 
apple,  or  starch,  or  sugar,  it  is  always  produced.  Does 
fire  produce  it,  manufacture  it ;  or  does  it  simply  develop 
what  was  positively  in  these  substances  before?  Chemis- 


CHEMISTRY    OF   THE    FARM.  jcj 

try  affords  an  answer  to  the  question.  Suppose  a  good 
housewife  places  in  her  heated  oven  an  apple  (a  potato,  a 
loaf  of  bread,  or  any  vegetable  substance  will  serve  the 
same  purpose),  and  then,  amid  the  multiplicity  of  house- 
hold cares,  it  is  forgotten,  and  when  examined  is  found 
done,  not  brown^  but  black.  The  oven  has  inadvertently 
acted  the  part  of  a  charcoal  manufactory.  The  apple  has 
disappeared,  and  in  its  place  is  found  a  dark  and  crispy 
shell.  In  its  growth,  the  apple  took  from  the  earth  its 
gaseous  elements,  its  hydrogen,  oxygen,  and  also  its  min- 
eral rock  food.  From  the  air  principally  it  procured  its 
carbon,  in  the  form  of  carbonic  acid,  which  is  a  gaseous 
acid  composed  of  one  atom  of  carbon  united  to  two  of 
oxygen.  Thus  united  to  oxygen,  it  exists  in  the  air,  and 
although  itself  always  intensely  black,  except  when  in  a 
crystallized  state,  its  color  is  not  detected  by  the  eye.  We 
may  perhaps  be  led  to  conclude  that  the  apple,  in  common 
with  all  other  vegetable  substances,  is  ashamed  of  the  color 
of  its  carbon  ingredient ;  for  before  it  can  appropriate  it 
to  itself,  it  must  first  expel  its  two  oxygen  attendants,  and 
thus  expose  its  hue ;  but  it  instantly  so  blends  and  com- 
bines it  with  the  other  elements,  that  we  are  unable  to  see 
it  until  that  merciless  disorganize!1,  heat,  drives  off  again 
its  more  fickle  and  volatile  companions,  and  then  the 
sable  element  is  seen  in  all  its  nakedness.  The  undue 
heat  of  the  oven  has  done  this.  While  the  oxygen,  hy- 
drogen, and  nitrogen  ingloriously  fled,  as  the  flame  curled 
around  the  iron  dome,  black  carbon  remained  faithful  to 
his  post.  But  let  us  try  his  courage  a  little  further ;  let 
us  see  what  curious  results  will  follow  if  we  apply  flame 
to  the  crispy  mass.  And  now  we  see  changes  and  new 


l6  CHEMISTRY   OF    THE    FARM. 

combinations  wonderful  to  behold.  One  of  the  sub- 
stances, oxygen,  which  fled  so  precipitately  from  the 
oven,  now  seems  to  repent  of  its  inconstancy ;  and  as  the 
flame  grows  more  intense,  it  rushes  into  the  very  centre 
of  the  conflict,  not  singly,  atom  by  atom,  but  in  pairs,  two 
individual  atoms  together,  clasping  one  of  the  carbon  ; 
and  thus  the  .sable  bride,  again  married,  not  to  one  oxy- 
gen bridegroom,  but  to  two,  floats  off  upon  its  bridal  tour 
through  the  air.  But  such  unnatural  unions  must  always 
prove  bad,  and  of  short  duration ;  such  is  the  result  here. 
The  united  parties  are  acid  from  the  start.  Thus  com- 
bined, they  constitute,  in  fact,  carbonic  acid,  and  the 
unhappy  union  continues  until  some  beautiful  plant,  or 
flower,  in  seeming  pity  for  the  parties,  seizes  them  in 
its  tiny  embrace,  and  with  one  strong  effort  effects  their 
separation,  sending  the  disunited  atoms  of  oxygen  away 
into  space,  and  appropriating  the  carbon  to  itself,  to  aid 
in  its  extension  and  growth.  When  the  charcoal  is 
burned  away  there  remains  a  small  quantity  of  ashes,  the 
mineral  food  of  the  apple  derived  from  the  earth.  We 
venture  to  adopt  this  method  to  illustrate  some  of  the 
marvellous  changes  incident  to  the  growth  and  destruc- 
tion of  all  vegetable  organisms.  Chemistry'has  taught  us 
fully  respecting  these  transmutations  and  the  whole  phi- 
losophy of  plant  growth ;  but  let  us  pass  to  consider  the 
chemistry  of  artificial  fertilization. 

The  dark  heaps  of  animal  excrement  which  lie  about 
the  barn-yards  of  farmers,  have,  during  all  ages,  been 
known  to  possess  specific  fertilizing  influence  upon 
plants ;  and  if  it  were  furnished  in  sufficient  quantities 
to  replace  the  elements  removed  from  soils  in  repeated 


CHEMISTRY    OF   THE    FARM.  1 7 

croppings,  the  labors  of  chemists  in  the  direction  of 
seeking  out  new  supplies  of  plant  food  would  be  prac- 
tically aimless  and  absurd.  But  this  is  not  the  case. 
The  exhaustive  process  is  continuous  in  all  civilized 
communities,  and  it  is  impossible,  in  densely-peopled 
sections,  to  maintain  a  satisfactory  balance  between 
supply  and  demand. 

It  was  very  natural,  then,  that  early  in  the  history  of 
chemistry  as  an  exact  science,  it  should  be  called  to  the 
investigation  and  determination  of  the  chemical  nature 
of  that  material,  which  common  observation  and  experi- 
ence had  taught  to  possess  the  natural  food  of  plants.  As 
regards  its  superlative  value,  no  one  has  ever  entertained 
a  doubt,  either  before  or  since  the  field  of  chemical  inves- 
tigation was  fairly  opened.  What  is  its  composition? 
Allow  me  to  present  the  results  of  some  determinations 
of  my  own  on  this  point.  A  parcel  obtained  from  the 
yard  of  a  neighbor,  which,  under  the  conditions  in  which 
it  was  produced  and  preserved,  may  be  regarded  as  a  fair 
representative  of  the  article  as  furnished  by  ordinary 
farmers,  gave  the  following  results :  A  portion  weighing 
7,280  grains  was  carefully  dried  in  a  porcelain  dish  over 
a  water-bath,  and  it  was  found  to  lose  of  water  5,960 
grains,  leaving  of  dry  matter  1,320  grains.  Of  the  resid- 
uum thus  freed  from  moisture,  455  grains  were  placed 
in  a  platinum  capsule  and  carefully  ignited,  thus  remov- 
ing the  combustible  or  carbonaceous  matter  made  up  of 
the  elements  —  oxygen,  hydrogen,  and  carbon.  The  re- 
sultant ash  weighed  177  grains,  showing  a  loss  of  volatile 
or  combustible  elements  amounting  to  278  grains.  In 
order  that  the  results  of  the  analysis  may  be  clearlv 


1 8  CHEMISTRY    OF   THE    FARM. 

understood,  it  may  be  desirable  to  present  them  without 
regard  to  fractional  parts,  and  to  estimate  by  the  whole 
amount  experimented  with,  viz.,  7,280  grains.  This 
amount  gave  of  water,  5,960  grains  ;  combustible  or  car- 
bonaceous matter,  806 ;  nitrogen,  29 ;  potash  and  soda, 
41;  lime,  43;  magnesia,  14;  phosphoric  acid,  15;  sul- 
phuric acid,  ii  ;  chlorine,  14  ;  silicon  or  sand,  335  ;  oxide 
of  iron  and  alumina,  22.  The  points  in  this  examination 
which  will  doubtless  appear  most  striking,  are  the  large 
amounts  of  worthless  material  which  constitute  the  bulk 
of  barn-yard  manure,  the  water  and  sand  greatly  predom- 
inating over  everything  else. 

A  better  idea  of  this  may  be  obtained  if  the  results  of 
the  analysis  are  applied  to  a  larger  amount  of  manure, 
which  will  give  the  constituents  in  pounds.  Assuming 
that  a  cord  of  ordinary  barn-yard  manure  will  weigh 
three  thousand  pounds,  its  actual  value  as  a  fertilizer  may 
be  presented  as  follows :  There  is  contained  in  it  of 
water,  two  thousand  four  hundred  and  fifty-six  pounds ; 
common  sand,  one  hundred  and  thirty-eight  pounds. 
These  added  together  give  two  thousand  five  hundred 
and  ninety-four  pounds  of  perfectly  worthless  substances. 
Now,  if  we  still  further  subtract  the  carbonaceous  matter, 
three  hundred  and  thirty-two  pounds,  which  is  of  no  more 
value  than  muck,  peat,  straw  or  chaff,  we  have  left  only 
seventy-four  pounds  of  active  fertilizing  material  which  has 
a  money  value.  To  obtain  this  seventy-four  pounds,  which 
really  is  all  that  is  valuable,  the  farmer  loads  and  hauls 
upon  his  field  three  thousand  pounds,  or  one  and  a  half 
tons,  of  a  compound  in  which  there  is  water  enough  to  do 
the  weekly  washing  of  a  small  neighborhood,  and  a  suf- 


CHEMISTRY    OF    THE    FARM.  19 

fici^ncy  of  sand  to  keep  the  kitchen  floor  tidy  for  a  month. 
The  seventy-four  pounds  of  mineral  salts  might  be  taken 
in  an  ordinary  bushel-basket,  and  carried  upon  the  shoul- 
der to  any  point  desired.  In  this  amount  there  is  the 
nitrogen,  potash,  soda,  lime,  magnesia,  phosphoric  acid, 
sulphuric  acid,  chlorine,  iron,  and  alum.  In  estimating 
the  market  value  of  these  substances,  we  may  obtain  the 
nitrogen  by  the  use  of  crude  nitrate  of  soda  or  sulphate  of 
ammonia,  at  a  cost  of  two  dollars  and  sixty  cents ;  the 
potash,  soda,  &c.,  in  one  and  one  half  bushels  of  good 
wood  ashes,  at  thirty-five  cents ;  and  fifteen  pounds  of 
common  salt,  ten  pounds  of  bone-dust,  three  pounds  of 
gypsum  will  supply  the  remaining  constituents,  at  a  cost 
of  fifty  cents.  If  we  estimate  the  carbonaceous  matter  at 
ten  cents,  we  have,  as  the  actual  cash  value  of  all  that 
promotes  plant  growth  in  three  thousand  pounds  of  barn- 
yard manure,  the  sum  of  three  dollars  and  thirty-five 
cents.  There  are  but  few  localities  where  the  farmer  can 
purchase  manure  at  less  than  seven  dollars  the  cord  ;  and 
when  to  this  we  add  the  expense  of  hauling  and  applying 
to  fields,  we  find  there  is  a  wide  margin  between  the  cost 
of  the  isolated  valuable  constituents  of  manure,  and  the 
article  as  furnished  in  its  natural  condition.  Barn-yard 
manure  may  be  imitated  by  thoroughly  composting  with 
a  cord  of  seasoned  meadow  muck  sixty-five  pounds  of 
crude  nitrate  of  soda,  two  bushels  of  wood  ashes,  one  peck 
of  common  salt,  ten  pounds  of  fine  bone  meal,  two  quarts 
of  plaster,  and  ten  pounds  of  epsom  salts.  The  cost  of  this 
compost  will  not  be  over  three  dollars  and  fifty  cents  the 
cord,  and  ought,  other  things  being  equal,  to  serve  as  good 
purpose  in  the  field.  In  practical  trials  of  this  mixture  I 


2O  CHEMISTRY    OF    THE    FARM. 

have  found  that  while  it  serves  a  most  admirable  end, 
giving  very  satisfactory  results,  it  does  not  act  so  rapidly 
and  energetically  as  manure ;  but  its  effects  are  more 
lasting. 

In  short,  the  same  salts  and  organic  matter  as  found 
in  the  dung-heap,  have  a  higher  money  value,  and  seem 
to  exert  a  more  specific  influence  upon  plants,  than 
when  presented  in  artificial  mixtures.  By  substituting 
nitrate  of  potassa,  or  saltpetre,  for  soda,  the  compost  is 
greatly  improved,  while  its  cost  is  enhanced.  If  the 
salts  are  dissolved  in  water,  —  those  that  are  soluble,  — 
and  the  bone  in  ley,  and  good  muck  is  employed,  a 
compost  is  formed  very  nearly  as  valuable  as  seasoned 
excrement.  Very  nearly,  we  have  said  —  why  is  it 
not  of  equal  value? 

We  have  reason  to  believe  it  is  owing  to  a  minuteness 
of  the  subdivision  of  atoms,  which  we  can  neither  pro- 
duce nor  comprehend,  —  a  degree  of  comminution  which 
sets  at  defiance  all  mechanical  and  chemical  manipula- 
tion. Besides  this,  there  is,  however,  a  peculiar  condi- 
tion arising  from,  or  communicated  by,  the  contact  of 
vital  forces,  which  science  is  incapable  of  explaining. 
A  physician  once  brought  to  me  a  jar  of  ox's  blood, 
with  the  request  that  I  would  extract  or  isolate  the  metal 
iron  therefrom,  and  place  it  in  his  hands.  In  answer  to 
an  inquiry  regarding  its  uses,  he  stated  he  wished  to 
employ  it  as  a  therapeutic  agent,  under  the  impres- 
sion that  iron  once  assimilated  would  have  a  higher 
and  more  natural  influence  when  passed  again  through 
the  animal  economy,  than  the  usual  forms  of  the  metal 
from  other  sources.  His  hypothesis  was  undoubtedly 


CHEMISTRY    OF    THE    FARM.  21 

correct,  and  while  it  was  quite  within  the  power  of 
chemistry  to  isolate  the  iron  from  the  blood,  it  was  im- 
possible to  secure  it  in  the  condition  in  which  it  existed 
in  that  fluid.  That  condition  is  indeed  a  peculiar  pne, 
and  its  presence  is  not  indicated  by  any  of  the  usual 
chemical  re-agents.  If  we  applied  to  it  simply  the 
usual  manipulating  processes,  chemistry  would  fail  to 
show  that  there  was  an  atom  of  iron  present  in  the 
blood  of  men  or  animals.  This  may  illustrate  the  dif- 
ference between  the  fertilizing  influence  of  metals  and 
salts,  as  found  in  animal  excrement  and  as  existing  in 
other,  or  the  usual  forms.  The  iron  as  found  in  the 
blood,  if  administered  to  an  enaBmic  patient,  would 
without  doubt  immediately,  and  by  direct  and  easy 
processes,  again  pass  to  its  appropriate  place,  and  re- 
store the  sanguineous  fluid  promptly  to  its  normal 
condition. 

But  chemistry  can  never  furnish  it  in  that  form, 
neither  can  it  supply  the  mineral  constituents  required 
by  plants,  precisely  as  found  in  manures ;  but  this  must 
not  lead  us  to  disparage  science  and  reject  its  teachings. 
We  will  accept  what  it  does  teach  with  sincere  thank- 
fulness. We  will  use  as  a  medicine  the  best  forms  of 
iron  it  suggests,  and  they  are  many  and  of  great  ef- 
ficacy ;  we  will  employ  those  fertilizing  agents  which  it 
has  pointed  out  as  possessed  of  merit ;  and  they,  also, 
are  many. 

The  impression  entertained  by  some  that  chemists 
underrate  and  disparage  barn-yard  manure,  is  an  er- 
roneous one.  It  has  no  foundation  in  fact.  They  labor 
to  multiply  sources  of  this  material,  and  the  most  im 


22  CHEMISTRY    OF   THE    FARM. 

portant  service  rendered  by  it  to  the  farmer  is  in  the 
methods  it  points  out  whereby  it  is  economized,  and 
its  efficacy  preserved.  In  this  particular,  chemistry  has 
accomplished  much  for  agriculture.  Would  that  soil- 
cultivators  gave  heed  to  its  suggestions ;  then,  indeed, 
would  there  be  less  demand  for  other  agents. 

But,  secondly,  let  us  consider  what  it  has  done  in  the 
way  of  furnishing  a  supply  of  these.  Here  we  find  the 
evidences  of  the  exercise  of  a  wonderful  intelligence 
and  industry,  —  a  persistent  scientific  labor  hardly  ex- 
celled in  any  other  field  of  research.  It  has  analyzed 
and  demonstrated  the  great  value  of  decayed  vegetable 
matter,  as  peat  or  muck ;  and  given  reliable  directions 
how  to  fit  it  for  manurial  uses.  There  is  scarcely  a 
substance  upon  the  land  or  in  the  sea  that  has  not  been 
made  the  subject  of  careful  examination,  with  the  view 
of  ascertaining  if  it  contained  those  principles  capable 
of  nourishing  plants.  As  the  results  of  these  labors, 
we  have  a  class  of  substances  which,  in  contradistinction 
from  animal  excrement,  or  barn-yard  manure,  are  called 
"  special  "  or  "  chemical  "  fertilizers.  Perhaps  no  arti- 
cle of  the  class  has  received  more  attention  in  this  coun- 
try and  in  Europe,  than  bones,  and  they  have  become  a 
standard  article  of  commerce.  They  are  presented  in 
the  natural  condition,  as  found  in  animals,  or  in  that  of 
a  powder  of  variable  fineness.  Dissolved  in  acids,  be- 
fore or  after  calcination,  they  are  called  "  superphos- 
phates," and  in  this  form  are  largely  employed  in 
agriculture.  The  term  "  superphosphate "  is  a  popu- 
lar one,  and  advantage  is  taken  of  this  to  palm  off 
upon  unsuspecting  farmers  all  conceivable  compounds 


CHEMISTRY    OF   THE    FARM.  23 

of  meadow-muck,  human  excrement,  blubber  and  fish 
oil,  gypsum  and  charcoal,  as  the  genuine  article. 

Superphosphate  of  lime,  or  that  compound  formed  by 
dissolving  finely-ground  bones  in  sulphuric  acid,  is  a 
most  excellent  fertilizer.  There  is  scarcely  any  land 
in  New  England  that  will  not,  under  its  use,  render 
highly  remunerative  returns ;  but  we  cannot  depend 
upon  manufacturers  for  it.  Every  farmer  must  make 
it  upon  his  own  premises ;  and  I  insist  that  it  can  be 
produced  readily,  safely,  cheaply.  Let  me  present  the 
method  which  I. adopt  upon  my  own  farm  premises. 

Take  a  common  sound  molasses  cask,  divide  in  the 
middle  with  a  saw,  into  one  half  of  this  place  half  a 
barrel  of  Jinefy-ground  bone,  and  moisten  it  with  two 
buckets  of  water,  using  a  hoe  in  mixing.  Have  ready 
a  carboy  of  oil  of  vitriol,  and  a  stone  pitcher  holding 
one  gallon.  Turn  out  this  full  of  the  acid,  and  grad- 
ually add  it  to  the  bone,  constantly  stirring.  As  soon 
as  effervescence  subsides,  fill  it  again  with  acid,  and  add 
as  before ;  allow  it  to  remain  over  night,  and  in  the 
morning  repeat  the  operation,  adding  two  more  gallons 
of  acid.  When  the  mass  is  quiet,  add  about  two  gallons 
more  of  water,  and  then  gradually  mix  the  remaining 
half  barrel  of  bone,  and  allow  it  to  rest.  The  next  day 
it  may  be  spread  upon  a  floor,  where  it  will  dry  speedily 
if  the  weather  is  warm.  A  barrel  of  good  loam  may 
be  mixed  with  it  in  drying.  It  may  be  beaten  fine 
with  a  mallet,  or  ground  in  a  plaster  mill.  If  several 
casks  are  used,  two  men  can  prepare  a  ton  of  excellent 
superphosphate,  after  this  method,  in  a  day's  time.  It 
affords  a  prompt  fertilizing  influence,  especially  upon 


24  .  CHEMISTRY    OF    THE    FARM. 

root  crops,  even  when  employed  alone.  Much  less  acid 
is  used  in  this  formula  than  is  demanded  to  accomplish 
perfect  decomposition  of  the  bones ;  but  it  is  important 
to  guard  against  the  possibility  of  any  free  sulphuric 
acid  in  the  mass. 

Another  most  excellent  method  of  preparing  bones  for 
field  use,  is  to  dissolve  or  saponify  the  gelatinous  portion 
by  the  employment  of  caustic  alkalies.  For  this  purpose, 
take  one  hundred  pounds,  beaten  into  as  small  fragments 
as  possible,  pack  them  in  a  tight  cask  or  box  with  one 
hundred  pounds  of  good  wood  ashes.  Mix  with  the 
ashes,  before  packing,  twenty-five  pounds  of  slaked  lime, 
and  twelve  pounds  of  sal-soda,  powdered  fine.  It  will 
require  about  twenty  gallons  of  water  to  saturate  the 
mass,  but  more  may  be  added  from  time  to  time  to 
maintain  moisture.  In  two  or  three  weeks  the  bones 
will  be  broken  down  completely,  and  the  whole  may  be 
turned  out  upon  a  floor,  and  mixed  with  two  bushels  of 
dry  peat  or  good  soil,  and  after  drying  it  is  fit  for  use. 

This  mixture,  embracing  nearly  or  quite  all  the  great 
essentials  of  plant  food,  is  one  which  in  its  application 
will  afford  most  prompt  and  satisfactory  results.  Its 
production  cannot  be  too  highly  recommended. 

The  employment  of  bones  in  their  raw  condition,  after 
grinding,  has  not  generally  been  attended  with  results 
entirely  satisfactory.  Notwithstanding  the  published  rec- 
ommendations and  testimonials,  the  fact  remains,  that 
the  general  verdict  is  not  in  their  favor.  My  experience 
in  the  employment  of  this  form  of  fertilizing  material 
has  been  considerable,  having  used  many  tons  during 
the  past  four  years.  Chemical  analysis  of  corn  and 


CHEMISTRY   OF    THE    FARM.  25 

wheat,  taken  in  connection  with  that  of  bones,  would 
seem  to  show  that  they  do  not  contain  a  sufficiency  of 
the  nitrogenous  element  to  render  them  specifically  ben- 
eficial to  those  cereals.  And  I  have  found,  in  practical 
trials,  that  they  often  exert  but  indifferent  influence  upon 
corn  and  wheat,  when  used  uncombined  or  in  a  raw  con- 
dition. This  is  especially  true  of  steamed  bones,  where 
a  portion  of  the  gelatine  has  been  removed  in  the  ma- 
nipulating process.  When  specifically  employed  upon 
soils  appropriated  to  corn  or  other  grain  crops,  failures, 
either  partial  or  complete,  have  been  often  experienced ; 
but  upon  those  designed  for  roots,  or  some  varieties  of 
vegetables,  success  is  uniformly  certain. 

Bones  are  made  up  of  an  earthy  tissue  of  fine  cells,  in 
which  an  organic  substance  —  gelatine  — is  enclosed. 
The  gelatine  holds  the  nitrogen,  and  undergoes  putre- 
factive change,  when  moistened  with  water>  with  access 
of  air.  Ground  bones  undergo  no  change  when  air  and 
moisture  are  excluded,  and  without  this  the  powder  is 
no  more  fitted  or  adapted  for  plant  food  than  pebble- 
stones or  powdered  glass.  The  putrefactive  fermenta- 
tion is  attended  with  a  copious  evolution  of  heat ;  new 
bodies  are  formed,  and  disintegration  of  the  structure 
takes  place.  The  earthy  constituents  are  composed 
principally  of  phosphate  of  lime.  The  best  specimens 
I  have  met  with  gave,  approximately,  of  animal 
material  and  water,  thirty-five  per  cent. ;  phosphoric 
acid  earths,  forty-seven  per  cent.  ;  carbonate  of  lime, 
silica,  &c.,  eighteen  per  cent.  A  direct  estimation  of 
the  nitrogen  gave,  in  one  thousand  pounds,  of  bones, 
fifty  pounds ;  of  phosphoric  acid,  two  hundred  and 


26  CHEMISTRY   OF   THE    FARM. 

forty  pounds ;  of  lime,  three  hundred  and  thirty  pounds. 
Hence  we  find  they  afford  about  twenty  per  cent,  of 
nitrogen  in  their  fresh  condition.  The  phosphoric  acid, 
however,  greatly  preponderates.  Of  this  they  furnish 
a  rich  supply. 

In  carefully  studying  the  causes  of  failure  of  bones, 
when  applied  to  the  production  of  the  cereal  grains,  it 
is  evident  we  cannot  always  attribute,  it  to  want  of  the 
nitrogenous  principle,  as,  'in  addition  to  what  it  is  capa- 
ble of  furnishing,  other  sources  of  supply  often  exist 
in  the  soil  fully  capable  of  meeting  deficiencies. 

In  considering  some  general  causes  which  operate 
to  prevent  full  and  legitimate  good  results  following 
the  application  of  bones  to  soils,  we  shall  see  that  the 
method  or  form  of  employment  may  have  much  to  do 
with  such  failures.  Adverse  influences  may  be  due, 
first,  to  adulteration  in  the  bone  material ;  second,  the 
want  of  proper  preparation  before  applying  to  the  soil ; 
third,  unfavorable  seasons.  The  first  is  an  evil  of  very 
great  magnitude,  and  one  which  can  and  ought  to  be 
abated.  Every  dollar  accumulated  by  the  industrious 
farmer  is  usually  earned  by  the  sweat  of  the  brow,  and 
he  ought,  particularly,  to  be  exempt  from  peculation 
and  fraud.  Pulverized  oyster  and  clam-shells,  mixed 
so  largely  with  bone  dust  by  some  manufacturers,  ex- 
hibit a  form  of  dishonesty  particularly  reprehensible, 
and  is  a  source  of  great  loss  and  disappointment  to  the 
husbandman.  It  is  pleasing  to  know  that  all  mill  men 
do  not  practise,  this  fraud. 

The  want  of  proper  preparation  is  a  fruitful  source  of 
failure.  Bone  dust  ought  always  to  be  composted  or 


CHEMISTRY   OF   THE    FARM.  2>] 

rotted  before  using.  It  should  be  layered  with  good  muck 
or  soil,  and  kept  moist  until  thorough  decomposition  re- 
sults, and  then  it  is  fitted  for  the  field.  A  gill  of  dry  bone 
powder,  placed  in  the  opening  prepared  for  a  hill  of 
corn,  and  covered  with  moist  earth,  heats  rapidly  ;  and  I 
have  found  that  in  forty-eight  hours  a  thermometer,  with 
the  bulb  buried  in  the  mass,  indicates  a  temperature  of 

-, 

This  temperature  is  fatal  to  'the  germination  of 
and  besides  the  formation  of  caustic  ammonia  by  the  putre- 
factive change  of  the  gelatine,  furnishes  afa  4gent,  wheii 

\  .  ^"^  V 

excess  and  direct  contact,  equally  as  destructive  as  he 
Hence  we  learn  why  corn  and  other  grains  sometimes 
not  only  fail  to  flourish  under  its  influence,  but  are  abso- 
lutely destroyed  in  the  germ.  This  heating,  decomposing 
process  should  be  effected  prior  to  placing  it  in  contact 
with  seeds.  The  peat  or  soil  used  in  connection  with  it 
effectively  absorbs  all  ammoniacal  and  gaseous  products, 
and  holds  them  firmly  until  abstracted  by  the  fibres  of  the 
plant  roots  in  search  of  aliment. 

It  is  not  deemed  important  to  present  details  of  obser- 
vations and  experiments  with  bones  or  other  fertilizers. 
In  fact,  there  is  much  that  is  strictly  empirical  in  such 
statements ;  they  are  entangled  with  so  many  modifying 
and  distracting  circumstances  that  they  possess  but  little 
value. 

The  experimental  labors  undertaken  upon  my  own 
farm  have  led  me  to'  adopt  certain  general  conclusions  as 
respects  the  teachings  of  chemistry  arid  .methods  of  em- 
ployment of  special  fertilizers,  which  will  be  stated  before 
I  close.  .  I  have  employed  in  these  experiments  a  great 


28  CHEMISTRY    OF   THE    FARM. 

variety  of  substances,  under  all  possible  forms  and  con- 
ditions, and  have  had  regard  to  hygrometric  and  ther- 
mometric  influences. 

The  analysis  of  soils  constituted  a  prominent  part  of  the 
labor,  and  it  was  in  this  direction  that  I  expected  chem- 
istry would  furnish  most  important  aids. 

It  was  soon  apparent  that  but  imperfect  guidance  was 
to  be  afforded  by  these  analyses,  however  carefully  con- 
ducted. In  fact,  the  very  perfection  of  the  results,  the 
exhaustive  nature  of  the  processes,  created  confusion  and 
doubt,  inasmuch  as  they  revealed  the  presence  of  elements 
amply  sufficient  to  meet  the  wants  of  plants ;  and  yet  they 
would  not  flourish  in  those  soils. 

Chemical  reagents  make  palpable  that  which  vital 
processes  cannot  force  from  their  hiding-places.  Acids 
dissolve  hard  and  refractory  substances  ;  the  tender  spon- 
gioles  of  plants  can  only  seize  and  appropriate  those 
which  are  already  in  a  state  of  solution.  Hence,  chemi- 
cal research  may  demonstrate  the  presence  in  any  given 
soil  of  the  different  forms  of  food  which  they  require ; 
but  if  the  experimenter  authoritatively  announces  to  the 
farmer  that  it  is  fertile  and  capable  of  bearing  crops,  he  is 
in  danger  of  incurring  contempt  and  ridicule,  as  practical 
trial  disproves  his  science  and  his  statements.  The  ele- 
ments of  fertility  must  not  only  be  present  in  a  soil,  but 
they  must  exist  in  an  assimilable  form.  To  determine 
the  presence  and  amount  of  the  useful  substances  is  not 
enough  ;  research  must  proceed  farther,  and  declare  the 
condition  in  which  they  exist.  There  is  very  great  lia- 
bility to  be  misled  in  analyses  of  this  character,  and 
chemistry  has  failed  to  afford  much  practical  aid  to  hus- 
bandmen in  this  direction. 


CHEMISTRY    OF    THE    FARM.  29 

I  have  found  that  soils  holding  but  very  disproportion- 
ate quantities  of  those  elements  which  a  particular  crop 
required,  would  nevertheless  produce  it  in  fair  abun- 
dance. I  have  to  confess  to  disappointment  to  false  pre- 
dictions of  results  in  some  special  instances ;  and  until 
the  true  explanation  presented  itself  to  my  mind,  the 
matter  of  chemical  research  in  soil  analysis  was  under  a 
cloud. 

What  was  the  explanation?  Why,  simply  this:  the 
soil,  although  holding  the  substance  sparsely,  yet  all  of  it 
was  in  an  assimilable  condition  ;  and  as  there  was  enough 
to  meet  the  wants  of  a  single  crop,  it  was  sought  out  and 
appropriated. 

If  the  same  crop  had  been  repeated  the  succeeding 
year,  it  would  have  been  very  nearly  or  quite  a  failure. 
So  long  as  chemical  analysis  of  soils  is  inadequate  tow 
inform  us  respecting  the  condition,  or  how  much  of  the 
contained  plant  food  is  in  a  soluble  state  as  required  by 
vegetable  organisms,  it  will  be  impossible  to  make  any 
certain  predictions  regarding  its  immediate  or  remote 
productiveness.  Analysis  must  not  on  this  account  be 
discarded  as  useless  or  unprofitable  in  its  teaching,  as  by 
its  aid  a  vast  number  of  significant  facts  have  been  devel- 
oped, and  many  positive  principles  educed.  A  soil  found 
to  contain  none  of  the  constitutents  which  plants  require 
could  with  safety  be  pronounced  barren  ;  and  if  there  was 
an  utter  deficiency  of  any  one  essential,  like  phosphoric 
acid,  lime,  or  potash,  it  could  with  equal  safety  be 
declared  incompetent  to  support  a  certain  variety  of  vege- 
tation. Analysis  fails  to  determine  the  positive  imme- 
diate fertility  of  a  soil,  as  we  cannot  determine  how  much 


3O  CHEMISTRY    OF   THE    FARM. 

material  is  in  an  assimilable  condition.  Viewing  the 
matter  as  I  do,  it  is  not  often  necessary  to  resort  to  this 
expensive  mode  of  inquiry.  As  will  be  shown,  we  can 
fertilize  understandingly  by  chemical  aids  which  do  not 
pertain  to  the  department  of  analysis.  Chemistry  not 
only  unfolds  the  precise  nature  of  soils,  but  also,  as  we 
have  seen,  the  substances  and  principles  which  enter  into 
plant  structures. 

The  relations  between  the  two  are  such,  we  are  cer- 
tain, that  the  inorganic  matter  found  in  the  latter  must 
have  existed  in  the  former.  If  there  were  no  inter- 
fering agencies  beyond  our  guidance,  the  whole  prob- 
lem of  vegetable  growth  would  be  apparently  the 
simple  one  of  demand  and  supply,  and  this  we  could 
control. 

,  It  is  an  axiom  which  admits  of  no  dispute  or  contradic- 
tion, that  all  the  jplant  consumes  of  a  mineral  character 
comes  from  the  soil.  Let  us  consider  for  a  moment  the 
character  of  some  grains — wheat,  for  example. 

If  we  make  chemical  examination  of  wheat,  we  find 
that  what  we  are  able  to  rub  oft'  from  the  kernels,  after 
moistening,  with  a  coarse  towel,  is  made  up  of  woody 
fibre,  and  differs  but  little  from  the  dry  straw  of  the  plant. 
The  next  wrapper,  which  is  a  continuous  one,  contains 
the  most  important  constituents  of  the  seed,  holding  the 
phosphate  salts,  and  the  nitrogenous  ingredients.  Here 
is  stored  up  the  little  atoms  of  phosphate  of  lime,  mag- 
nesia, soda,  and  potassa,  which  the  microscopic  mouths 
of  the  root  fibres  have  sucked  from  the  soil  in  which  it 
grew.  The  office  of  the  plant  has  been  one  simply  of 
transference ;  it  has  transferred  from  the  soil  the  earthy 


CHEMISTRY    OF   THE    FARM.  3! 

particles,  —  lifted  them  from  their  low  estate  to  the  high- 
est within  its  power  to  attain,  — placed  them  in  position 
to  meet  the  requirements  of  men  and  animals.  Now,  can 
the  plant  grow,  and  the  seeds  mature,  unless  the  soil  con- 
tains these  salts  ?  It  may  grow,  and  even  luxuriantly ; 
but  shrivelled  and  imperfect  seeds,  few  in  number,  will 
occupy  the  little  pockets  in  the  head,  where,  under  the 
nourishing  influence  of  a  properly  adjusted  soil,  the 
grains  would  round  out  with  that  plumpness  that  causeth 
the  husbandman  to  rejoice. 

It  follows,  then,  that  phosphoric  acid  is  needful  for  the 
proper  development  of  wheat  seeds,  —  and,  moreover,  as 
the  gluten  which  holds  the  salts  is  rich  in  nitrogen,  that 
element  is  essential  to  its  growth.  These  truths  are  a 
part  of  those  which  chemistry  reveals  to  us  respecting 
the  constitution  of  the  wheat  berry.  New  England  soils 
are  deficient  in  these  elements.  Lime  and  the  phosphates 
were  never  stored  up  in  them  in  abundance,  and  through 
the  successive  croppings  carried  on  by  our  fathers,  men 
and  animals  have  absorbed  into  their  bony  frameworks 
the  little  which  had  accumulated  during  the  ages.  The 
inference  which  seems  to  follow  from  these  considerations 
is,  that  we  have  only  to  supply  soil  deficiencies,  sow  our 
wheat,  and,  casting  aside  all  doubt  and  anxiety,  patiently 
await  the  abundant  harvest. 

And  why  should  we  not  do  this?  Have  we  not  solved 
all  necessary  problems  ?  Have  we  not  learned  by  analysis 
what  food  is  wanted,  and  have  we  not  furnished  it? 
Have  we  not  learned  precisely  the  constitution  of  the 
vegetable  structure  and  its  seeds  ?  Do  we  not  understand 
the  nature  of  its  appetite,  and  how  it  must  be  fed  ?  Cer- 


32  CHEMISTRY    OF   THE    FARM. 

tainly  we  do.  Why,  then,  should  we  meet  with  failures? 
Because  we  cannot  bring  under  control  all  the  conditions 
of  vegetable  growth.  We  could  better  command  success 
were  there  no  uncontrollable  influences  to  be  taken 
into  account.  The  chemist  cannot  order  meteorological 
agencies.  He  finds  in  his  examination  of  plants,  that 
they  contain  an  abundance  of  water,  and  he  also  learns 
that  vast  quantities  are  constantly  being  exhaled  during 
growth  ;  and  still  another  most  important  fact  stands  out 
for  recognition :  the  food  he  supplies  must  be  soluble  in 
water,  and,  by  its  agency,  voyaged  through  the  micro- 
scopic canals  to  its  appropriate  resting-place.  Water, 
then,  is  needful  for  perfect  development  of  plants  and 
seeds.  Heat  also  must  be  supplied.  The  clouds  must 
let  drop  the  rain,  and  solar  rays  supply  the  diffusive 
warmth,  else  the  husbandman  returns  from  his  harvests 
in  sorrow,  and  science  fails  to  aid  him.  Let  us  not  un- 
justly condemn  its  teachings  because  it  is  unable  to  con- 
trol the  caprices  of  the  seasons. 

It  is  seldom,  however,  that  crops  utterly  fail  from  the 
withholding  of  heat  and  moisture.  Our  fields  are  lean 
because  of  starvation  —  because  we  do  not  supply,  through 
the  soil,  the  food  which  plants  require. 

Chemistry  teaches,  what  had  already  been  learned  from 
observation  and  experience,  that  in  feeding  vegetable 
growths,  the  kind  of  aliment  demanded  differs  in  different 
organisms.  There  are  certain  great  families  of  plants 
which  have  diversified  appetites,  and  they  must  be  grati- 
fied in  their  tastes,  or  they  refuse  to  bring  forth  their  like. 
We  know  what  they  require,  and  we  obtain  hints  as  re- 
gards the  best  method  of  supplying  their  wants. 


CHEMISTRY    OF   THE    FARM. 


33 


It  is  safe  to  follow  the  guidance  of  chemistry  in  fertiliz- 
ing trees  and  vines.  Careful  examination  of  the  wood 
and  fruit  shows  what  substances  they  most  largely  con- 
sume. 

They  differ  from  grains  and  roots  not  so  much  in  the 
food  they  require,  as  in  circumstance  of  condition.  They 
are  placed  in  the  soil  to  remain  for  a  series  of  years,  and 
the  consumption  of  certain  elements  is  to  be  gradual,  but 
constant.  Therefore  it  is  better  to  supply  generously  the 
specific  aliment  they  require,  and  trust  to  soil  decomposi- 
tion for  those  articles  of  which  the  structure  needs  but  a 
trace. 

Near  two  years  ago,  I  prepared  a  grape  border 
sufficiently  large  for  thirty  vines.  It  was  arranged  in 
strict  accordance  with  the  chemical  structure  of  the  vine 
and  fruit.  Lime,  phosphoric  acid,  potash,  predominate 
in  these ;  therefore,  to  meet  the  first  want,  mortar  from 
the  walls  of  an  old  building  was  used ;  for  the  second, 
well-rotted  bone  dust;  for  the  third,  ashes.  But  little 
animal  excrement  was  employed,  decayed  sods  supplying 
the  needed  humus. 

Entertaining  the  idea  that  it  is  better  not  to  make  a 
homogeneous  mixture  of  border  materials,  they  were  ar- 
ranged in  very  thin  strata  or  layers ;  first  of  soil,  then 
bone,  then  soil  with  sand,  then  ashes,  soil  and  sand 
again,  then  lime.  The  layers  constituted  but  a  mere 
sprinkling,  and  due  regard  was  had  to  requisite  quanti- 
ties of  each. 

This  bed  was  not  disturbed  with  the  shovel  after  it  was 
completed.  Arranged  in  this  way,  it  seerped  reasonable 
to  suppose  that  the  roots  would  not  be  required  to  travel 
3 


34  CHEMISTRY    OF    THE    F'ARM 

so  far  for  food  in  the  early  stages  of  growth,  and  that, 
extending  as  the  supply  failed,  they  would  meet  with  a 
constant  supply  of  nourishment.  A  kind  of  vegetable 
instinct  evidently  controls  the  feeders  to  plants,  and 
enough  push  out  to  secure  each  distinct  element  in 
exact  proportion  to  its  wants ;  and  the  less  the  distance 
they  travel,  the  less  the  vital  force  consumed  in  urging 
onward  the  nutritious  principle. 

The  growth  of  wood  the  first  season  was  strong  and 
vigorous,  and  that  of  the  past  summer  so  extraordinary, 
that  I  had  the  curiosity  to  collect  the  wood  that  pushed 
out  and  matured  from  single  buds,  and  weigh  it,  and  the 
amount  was  found  to  be  one  hundred,  and  seven  pounds. 
Analysis  of  a  portion  of  the  leading  shoot  from  one  of  the 
vines,  basing  the  estimates  upon  ten  grammes,*  the  amount 
employed  in  the  examination,  gave,  as  the  quantity  of 
water  held  in  association,  sixty-one  pounds ;  combustible 
matter,  forty-four  and  a  half;  ash,  one  and  a  half  pounds. 
The  ash  contained,  of  potassa,  twenty-nine  parts  in  the 
hundred ;  phosphate  of  lime,  nineteen ;  carbonate,  thir- 
teen ;  soda,  three ;  magnesia,  four ;  and  small  quantities 
of  iron,  silex,  &c.  The  parts  are  given  in  round  num- 
bers, as,  for  the  purposes  had  in  view,  scientific  accuracy 
of  statement  is  unnecessary.  The  wood,  therefore,  cut 
away  at  the  fall  pruning,  carried  off  nearly  eight  ounces 
of  potash,  more  than  five  ounces  of  phosphate  of  lime, 
and  of  lime  and  carbonic  acid  nearly  four  ounces.  The 
subtile  chemical  agencies  at  work  in  the  soil  to  render 
soluble  and  digestible  so  large  amounts  of  mineral  salts, 
how  difficult  to  comprehend !  and  how  amazing  the 

*  Belonging  to  the  French  system  of  weights  — decimal  system. 


CHEMISTRY    OF   THE    FARM.  35 

amount  of  mechanical  force  exhibited  by  the  vines  starting 
from  tender  buds,  capable  of  sustaining  at  maturity  more 
than  sixty  pounds  of  water,  and  keeping  it  in  motion 
through  the  pores ! 

It  is  fairly  to  be  inferred  from  the  results  of  this  experi- 
ment that  the  luxuriant  and  healthy  growth  was  due  to 
the  generous  supply  of  food  precisely  adapted  to  the  wants 
of  the  vine,  and  that  the  teachings  of  chemistry,  as  relating 
to  the  structure  and  appetite  of  vines,  are  worth)'  of  regard. 

What  course  is  obviously  to  be  taken,  when,  from  re- 
peated croppings,  the  grape  clusters  fail  to  appear?  Shall 
we  tear  up  our  vines,  as  do  many,  and  entirely  remove 
the  contents  of  the  border  as  waste  matter,  and,  at  much 
expense,  form  a  new  one?  Drenching  with  farm-yard 
manure  from  year  to  year  has  failed  to  restore  to  full 
fruitfulness ;  and  why  ?  Because  it  does  not  furnish  in 
sufficient  abundance  the  one,  or,  perhaps,  two  substances 
which  are  imperatively  demanded.  Contemplate  for  a 
moment  the  very  large  amount  of  potash  stored  up  in  the 
vines  and  fruit,  —  greater  even  in  the  latter  than  in  the 
former,  —  and  is  there  not  palpable  significance  in  this 
fact  which  chemistry  unfolds? 

Unleached  ashes  applied  in  generous  quantity  to  old 
grape-borders  will  usually  restore  them  to  full  fruitfulness, 
and  render  removal  unnecessary.  If  they  falter  after  the 
application,  add  finely-ground  bones,  and  the  work  is 
done.  The  other  agents  needed  are  usually  present  in 
the  border  in  sufficient  quantity  to  meet  all  requirements ; 
and  it  is  only  necessary  to  add  those  which  have  been 
removed  by  absorption  to  effect  complete  restoiation. 

If  we    can    be   as   safely   guided   by  the  teachings  of 


36  CHEMISTRY   OF    THE    FARM. 

chemistry  in  the  cultivation  of  the  three  great  families  of 
plants  upon  which  agricultural  industry  is  most  exercised, 
the  cereals,  —  leguminous  plants  and  roots,  —  we  shall  be 
directed  by  a  light  which  will  lead  us  out  of  all  errors 
and  all  difficulties. 

A  recent  English  writer,  in  speaking  of  the  results  of 
the  labors  of  Professor  Ville,  of  the  imperial  farm  at  Vin- 
cennes,  int  the  exuberance  of  his  enthusiasm,  exclaims, 
"  There  is  nothing  extravagant  in  stating  that  light  has 
replaced  darkness,  that  order  has  succeeded  to  chaos,  and 
that  the  phantom  of  sterility  is  laid."  Without  sharing  in 
such  positive  convictions  in  regard  to  the  labors  of  the 
French  experimenter,  it  is  impossible  to  doubt  or  question 
the  importance  of  his  investigations.  Indeed,  in  their 
general  character,  they  can  hardly  be  regarded  as  very 
new  or  novel ;  but  they  strike  a  death-blow  at  one  delu- 
sion, which,  like  a  spectre,  has  haunted  chemists  in  their 
teachings  upon  agricultural  questions  for  many  years. 

This  relates  to  the  empirical,  indiscriminate  application 
of  single  fertilizing  substances  to  soils  without  any  definite 
object  in  view.  Perhaps  the  term  "running  for  luck" 
will  express  the  idea.  The  teachings  of  Sir  Humphrey 
Davy,  Liebig,  Johnstone,  Way,  and  many  others,  it 
must  be  confessed,  have  led  in  this  direction,  and  thus 
established  the  uncertainty  which  invests  such  experi- 
menting. The  literature  of  agriculture  is  almost  cor- 
rupted by  disquisitions  upon,  and  "recommendations  of, 
various  salts  or  substances,  as  being  the  long  sought-for 
elixir  vitae,  the  great  specific,  which  is  to  retrieve  all  lands 
from  barrenness. 

It    is    quite    certain    that    no    such    specific    exists. 


CHEMISTRY    OF    THE    FARM.  37 

The  recommendations  of  salt,  lime,  iron,  nitre,  am- 
moniacal  salts,  and  a  dozen  other  specifics  in  our  nu- 
merous excellent  and  useful  agricultural  papers,  cannot 
be  regarded  as  beneficial  to  agriculture.  It  is  quite 
natural  for  a  soil  cultivator,  when,  in  the  course  of  a 
series  of  experiments,  he  hits  upon  an  article  peculiarly 
adapted  to  the  condition  of  his  soil,  to  desire  to  communi- 
cate to  others  a  knowledge  of  what  has  been  so  beneficial 
to  him.  The  motives  are  honorable  and  praiseworthy ; 
but  he  may  thereby  lead  a  neighbor  into  trying  an  experi- 
ment which  ends  in  utter  failure  ;  and  not  only  this,  may 
do  harm,  by  creating  prejudice  against  that  which,  under 
a  change  of  circumstances,  might  prove  exceedingly  use- 
ful. It  will  be  understood  that  these  remarks  are  made 
against  the  empirical  use  of  single  fertilizing  substances. 
If  any  one  has  time,  and  inclines  to  experiment  for  his 
amusement,  no  harm  can  result,  provided  it  be  understood 
that  the  field  of  knowledge  cannot  be  greatly  extended  by 
such  labors,  and  that  no  observed  beneficial  results  are  of 
much  use,  except  to  the  experimenter. 

Perhaps  gypsum  may  form  an  exception  to  these  re- 
marks. Because  of  its  peculiarly  isolated  character,  and 
of  the  uncertainty  of  its  mode  of  fertilization,  it  must  con- 
tinue to  be  employed  empirically  until  it  is  better  under- 
stood. Gypsum  has  been  the  great  stumbling-block  in 
the  way  of  chemists,  and  the  question  of  its  method  of 
imparting  fructifying  influences  to  plants  is  still  an  unset- 
tled one.  The  facetious  author  of  a  popular  book  upon 
husbandry  remarks,  "  There  has  as  yet  been  found  no 
law  by  which  to  govern  its  application.  On  one  field  it 
succeeds ;  on  another,  to  all  appearances  precisely  the 


38  CHEMISTRY    OF   THE    FARM. 

same,  it  fails.  At  one  time  it  would  seem  as  if  its  efficacy 
depended  upon  showers  following  closely  upon  its  appli- 
cation ;  in  other  seasons,  showers  lose  their  effect.  In 
one  locality,  a  few  bushels  to  the  acre  work  strange  im- 
provements, and  in  another,^/?}/ bushels  work  no  change 
whatever.  Now  it  is  a  hill  pastifre  that  delights  in  it, 
and  again  it  is  an  alluvial  meadow." 

Liebig,  after  having  advanced  a  very  decided  hypothe- 
sis regarding  its  mode  of  action,  has  in  his  more  recent 
work,  "  The  Natural  Laws  of  Husbandry,"  abandoned, it, 
and  stated  that  "  the  whole  matter  is  still  involved  in 
doubt." 

It  may  not  be  worth  while  to  add  another  theory  to  the 
many  already  advanced ;  but  I  cannot  well  help  saying 
that  experiment  and  observation  lead  to  the  conclusion 
that  neither  to  the  salt  itself,  nor  to  the  separated  lime  or 
acid,  is  its  fertilizing  influence  wholly  or  uniformly  due. 
Its  effects  are  nitrogenous  in  some  cases.  It  is  capable  of 
furnishing  nitrogen  to  plants,  through  the  agency  of  an 
ammoniacal  salt,  resulting  from  soil  decomposition. 

My  attention  was  drawn  to  the  salt,  accidentally,  by 
observing  a  strong  smell  of  sulph-hydric  acid  in  a  mass  at 
the  door  of  a  plaster-mill.  This  had  been  trodden  upon 
constantly,  and  water  and  mud  containing  organic  matter 
become  solidly  impacted  with  it.  Upon  examination  of  a 
heap  in  the  mill,  I  found  that  masses  lying  against  wet 
timbers  evolved  the  same  odor.  This  led  to  experiment ; 
and  it  was  proved  that  gypsum  in  the  presence  of  organic 
matter  is  readily  deprived  of  its  oxygen,  and  converted 
into  sulphide  of  calcium. 

It  wras  further   proved  that  this  salt  is  capable  of  ab- 


CHEMISTRY    OF   THE    FARM.  39 

^orbing  ammonia  from  the  air,  and  from  decomposing 
vegetable  matter,  and  being  thereby  changed  into  hydro- 
sulphide  of  ammonium  ;  and  this  again  may  be  changed 
into  carbonate  of  ammonia  by  absorption  of  carbonic  acid 
from  the  air.  These  are  some  of  the  changes  which  sul- 
phate of  lime  is  proved  capable  of  undergoing,  But  this 
is  not  the  time  or  place  to  protract  the  discussion.  It 
seems  to  me  probable,  that  the  different  theorists  may  be 
partly  right  and  partly  wrong ;  in  short,  that  the  salt  is 
capable  of  exerting  specific  influence  in  several  ways, 
according  to  the  conditions  under  which  it  is  acted  upon. 
It  may  furnish  nitrogen,  or  lime,  or  sulphur,  or  it  may 
act  on  some  soils  physically,  and  not  chemically,  by  ab- 
sorption of  moisture.  If  these  views  are  correct,  they 
may  account  for  the  doubt  and  confusion  under  which 
the  question  rests. 

In  all  experiments  with  gypsum  which  have  passed 
under  my  observation,  the  lands  or  soils,  upon  which 
its  best  effects  are  observed,  are  hilly  pastures,  with  a 
northern  aspect  and  a  moist,  moss-covered  soil.  Mossy 
meadows  are  greatly  improved  under  its  use. 

The  theory  adopted  is,  that  there  must  be  organic  mat- 
ter in  a  moist  condition,  with  ready  access  of  air,  in  order 
to  carry  out  those  changes  which  have  been  alluded  to. 
But  I  do  not  speak  authoritatively  upon  this  point. 

After  what  has  been  said  regarding  the  employment  of 
specific  fertilizers,  it  is  probable  the  reader  will  have  an- 
ticipated the  recommendation  I  have  to  make,  and  that 
is,  always  to  compost  or  compound  elements  of  nutrition 
designed  for  plants,  until  a  system  is  established,  which 
will  enable  us  to  use  single  substances  understandingly. 


4O  CHEMISTRY    OF   THE    FARM. 

Chemistry,  in  its  application  to  agriculture,  has  certainly* 
made  advances,  inasmuch  as  it  is  now  capable  of  demon- 
strating the  correctness  of  two  important  propositions : 
first,  that  each  field  has  its  own  peculiar  wants ;  second, 
that  each  plant  has  its  own  peculiar  appetite.  It  has 
further  established  its  claims  to  respect  and  confidence, 
by  showing  that,  meteorological  influences  being  favora- 
ble, we  can  supply  requisite  food,  in  the  proper  quantity 
and  condition,  to  secure  the  largest  crops,  with  a  great 
degree  of  certainty. 

The  system  of  Professor  Ville,  already  referred  to,  em- 
braces this  idea.  He  proposes  the  use  of  what  he  de- 
nominates a  perfect  manure;  that  is,  one  made  up  of 
nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  lime,  and  potassa.  This,  when 
made  up  and  applied  in  proper  quantities,  he  shows  is 
capable  immediately  of  changing  a  barren,  silicious  soil 
into  one  of  perfect  fertility. 

I  am  willing  to  accept  these  results  in  general  as  in 
accordance  with  my  own  experimental  observations  dur- 
ing the  past  three  years ;  or  rather  I  yield  assent  to  the 
correctness  of  the  principle  of  producing  and  applying 
perfect  manures.  It  is  noticeable  that  magnesia  is 
omitted  as  an  element  in  his  manure,  par  excellence. 
As  we  have  before  stated,  there  is  present  in  most  soils, 
or  there  is  constantly  being  formed  by  decomposition,  the 
minor  substances,  like  iron,  manganese,  chlorine,  &c., 
sufficient  for  the  wants  of  vegetable  organisms  ;  but  mag- 
nesia cannot  be  classed  with  them,  as  a  glance  at  the 
composition  of  some  important  grains  will  show. 

The  ash  of  wheat  affords  twelve  per  cent.,  or  twelve 
ounces  in  one  hundred ;  the  straw  more  than  three  per 


CHEMISTRY    OF    THE    FARM.  41 

cent. ;  barley,  seven ;  oats,  ten ;  rye,  ten ;  corn,  eight ; 
turnips,  two.  These  quantities  are  large,  and  in  the 
case  of  wheat  grain  come  next  to  lime,  forming  one 
eighth  of  the  whole  amount  of  ash. 

In  countries  where  magnesian  limestone  abounds,  the 
supply  may  be  fully  afforded  by  the  soil.  In  France, 
Germany,  and  England  this  is  probably  the  case ;  but  in 
New  England  we  cannot  form  a  perfect  manure  and 
overlook  the  magnesian  salts.  In  all  the  treatises  and 
statements  respecting,  fertilizing  agents  made  by  our 
chemists  and  experimenters,  we  find  scarcely  any  allu- 
sions to  the  importance  of  the  magnesian  element ;  and 
this  is  indeed  a  matter  of  surprise. 

It  probably  arises  from  the  practice  of  copying  the 
results  of  European  writers  —  not  from  the  deductions 
of  original  and  independent  research.  Our  soils  are  not 
constituted  like  those  of  Europe,  and  in  the  application 
of  fertilizing  principles  they  require  different  treatment. 
A  perfect  manure,  then,  adapted  to  our  soils,  should 
contain  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  lime,  potassa,  and 
magnesia. 

For  the  cereals,  excess  of  nitrogen  is  demanded ;  for 
leguminous  plants,  as  peas,  beans,  &c.,  potassa  ;  for  roots 
or  tubers,  phosphates.  All  demand  lime  and  magnesia, 
and  these  must  be  supplied  in  the  perfect  food  made  ready 
for  the  plant-children  of  our  fields. 

Three  questions  remain  to  be  answered:  First,  how 
shall  we  properly  prepare  these  elements  of  nutrition? 
Second,  how  shall  we  apply  them?  Third,  where  can 
we  obtain  them?  Chemistry  is  fully  capable  of  answering 
the  first.  Apply  all  substances  to  the  soil  in  the  finest 


42  CHEMISTRY    OF    THE    FARM. 

state  of  comminution ;  bring  everything  into  a  condition 
resembling  as  nearly  as  possible  the  excrementitious  prod- 
ucts of  animals,  which  is  the  true  condition.  The  bone 
for  phosphoric  acid  must  be  reduced  to  an  impalpable 
powder,  and  this  is  not  its  best  form  ;  it  is  better  to 
dissolve  it  in  acids  or  caustic  alkalies,  whose  teeth  are 
sharper  than  burr-mills  or  any  mechanical  levigators. 

The  potash  must  be  in  combination  with  carbonic  acid, 
or  in  the  form  of  carbonate  of  potassa.  This  is  the  most 
easily  assimilable  form,  but  in  the,  caustic  condition,  as 
in  ashes,  it  is  readily  changed  to  carbonate  by  contact 
with  air. 

The  nitrogen  must  be  furnished  through  ammoniacal 
compounds,  or  nitric  acid  salts.  Lime,  in  form  of  phos- 
phate, hydrate,  or  carbonate,  may  be  employed,  and  the 
sulphate  of  magnesia  furnishes  the  magnesian  element  in 
the  cheapest,  and  in  a  sufficiently  eligible  form.  How 
shall  we  apply  them?  This  can  be  understood  with  a 
full  knowledge  of  what  end  is  had  in  view,  or  what 
special  want  is  to  be  supplied.  There  can  be  no  success 
under  the  ordinary  conditions  in  which  our  agricultural 
labors  are  performed,  unless  an  intelligent  system  is  adopt- 
ed and  pursued  persistently  from  one  year  to  another. 

It  is  not  necessary  that  farmers  should  be  practical 
chemists,  to  be  successful  in  the  employment  df  fertiliz- 
ing agencies.  A  few  simple  principles,  furnished  by 
chemistry,  if  well  understood  and  earnestly  adopted,  will 
enable  any  one  to  appropriate  to  his  benefit  all  the  im- 
portant facts  unfolded  by  science  in  respect  to  manurial 
applications.  In  treating  a  worn-out  soil,  a  combination 
of  all  the  elements  needed  for  the  three  great  families  of 


CHEMISTRY    OF    THE    FARM.  43 

plants  should  be  employed ;  and  if  wheat  or  corn  is  to 
be  cultivated,  fields  so  prepared  will  yield  a  maximum 
return  the  first  year.  The  second  year,  add  the  proper 
quantity  of  that  which  these  grains  demand  in  largest 
abundance,  or  which  they  abstracted  from  the  soil  the 
first  year.  These  will  be  the  nitrogen  and  phosphate 
of  lime.  If  roots  have  been  cultivated,  the  phosphates 
alone  will  be  needed ;  if  some  member  of  the  pod-bear- 
ing or  leguminous  family,  potash.  The  three  varieties 
of  plants  may  be  followed  in  rotation,  with  success,  when 
by  experiment  the  plan  is  clearly  understood. 

The  great,  prominent  idea  is,  to  maintain  in  the  soil 
all  the  elements  *that  plants  require,  and  in  sufficient 
abundance.  If  a  particular  crop  removes  a  specific 
agent,  supply  it.  Barn-yard  manure  furnishes  all ;  and 
yet  the  same  intelligence  is  to  be  employed  in  its  use, 
and  the  equilibrium  of  elements  must  be  maintained  be- 
tween it  and  crops.  We  know  what  and  how  much  corn 
requires ;  we  know  how  much  good  manure  is  capable 
of  furnishing.  A  fundamental  point  in  good  farming  is, 
to  secure  every  ounce  of  this  possible.  It  is  an  absurd 
notion,  however,  to  suppose  we  can  artificially  produce  it, 
by  ill-adjusted  mixtures  of  turf,  sods,  chaff,  and  rubbish. 
We  can  easily  form  a  huge  and  dark  heap,  but  if  the  salts 
be  absent,  —  which  almost  alone  give  value,  —  it  is  hardly 
worth  the  labor  it  costs. 

But  the  supply  of  barn-yard  manure  is  not  and  cannot 
be  adequate  to  our  wants,  and  this  brings  us  to  the  third 
question.  If  it  was  not  for  the  matter  of  cost  or  value  in 
known  agents,  which  must  always  be  balanced  against  the 
value  of  products,  I  could  more  satisfactorily  answer  this 
important  inquiry. 


J4  CHEMISTRY    OF   THE    FARM. 

« 

At  present,  bones  furnish  the  cheapest,  in  fact  the  only 
tupplies  of  phosphoric  acid,  —  ashes  of  potassa  —  am- 
oioniacal  salts,  or  nitrate  of  soda  of  nitrogen.  In  this 
country,  prices  of  each  of  these  are  not  yet  so  great  as 
to  place  them  beyond  profitable  employment ;  but  unless 
the  price  of  farm  products  continues  to  advance  in  a 
direct  ratio  with  the  rise  of  the  agents,  the  time  will 
come  when  their  use  must  be  relinquished.  Chemists 
are  hard  at  work  upon  some  problems  of  great  moment 
to  the  agricultural  interests.  These  relate  to  the  isolation 
of  those  principles  of  fertility  which  are  locked  up  in  the 
stony  framework  of  our  globe.  Here  we  have  reasonable 

* 

grounds  for  expectation  and  hope  ;  millions  of  pounds  of 
potassa  are  reposing  in  felspathic  rocks,  and  it  cannot  be 
long  before  they  will  be  forced  by  chemical  agents  to  re- 
linquish their  rich  hoards  of  alkali.  In  the  apatite  and 
phosphorite  minerals  which  abound  so  extensively  in 
New  York  and  New  Jersey,  we  have  abundant  supplies 
of  phosphoric  acid  and  lime,  and  to  them  must  we  look 
for  future  wants. 

There  is  not  a  single  vegetable  in  the  field  or  wood  that 
does  not  contain  in  the  ash  potash,  in  some  form  of  com- 
bination, and  not  a  plant  can  be  found  upon  our  globe 
from  which  the  phosphates  are  absent;  therefore  we 
must  have  full  supplies  of  these  indispensable  agents. 

We  live  in  an  ocean  of  gaseous  matter  made  up  of 
oxygen  and  nitrogen ;  seventy-nine  pounds  of  the  latter 
is  contained  in  each  one  hundred  of  the  mixture.  Ready 
at  hand,  then,  is  this  element ;  but  unfortunately  most  plants 
are  incapable  of  absorbing  it  in  its  free  condition.  Experi- 
ments have  been  made  in  France,  which  give  promise  of 


CHEMISTRY    OF    THE    FARM.  45 

a  supply  of  the  ammoniacal  salts,  the  nitrogen  of  which 
is  derived  from  the  atmosphere  direct.  If  these  chemical 
labors  prove  successful,  we  can  understand  through  what 
source  supplies  of  nitrogen  may  be  afforded.  Lime  and 
magnesia  are  abundant  everywhere,  and  these  complete 
the  list  of  important  substances  needed  to  render  our 
fields  inexhaustibly  fertile. 

We  can  hardly  doubt  as  regards  the  abundant  resources 
of  nature,  or  cherish  a  hesitating  faith  in  respect  to  a  fu- 
ture supply  of  all  our  wants  in  feeding  the  plant-children 
of  our  fields.  Our  mother  earth  holds  within  her  bosom 
all  the  various  materials  needed  for  the  preservation  and 
well-being  of  her  children.  When  the  woodman's  axe 
ruthlessly  stripped  her  of  her  rich  vestments  of  umbra- 
geous forests,  and  thus  awakened  apprehensions  as  "re- 
gards the  supply  of  materials  needed  to  furnish  house- 
hold warmth,  we  were  directed  to  the  outcroppings  of 
black  carbon  in  our  immense  coal-fields ;  and  when  the 
Nantucket  and  New  Bedford  whalemen  returned  to  their 
wharves,  with  the  alarming  announcement  of  the  partial 
or  complete  failure  of  the  ocean  harvests  of  oil,  the  little 
rivulets  of  petroleum  which  oozed  from  the  rocks  in  Penn- 
sylvania were  sounded  to  their  depths,  and  immediately 
the  oil  spouted  up  in  such  quantities  as  taxed  all  our  ener- 
gies to  secure.  Let  us  look  forward,  then,  with  confi- 
dence, and  trust  to  the  future,  and  feel  assured  that 
chemistry,  which  holds  the  key  which  has  unlocked  so 
many  rich  chambers  in  the  storehouse  of  nature,  will 
open  others  fully  capable  of  supplying  all  the  wants  of 
the  husbandman. 


47 


CHEMISTRY    OF  THE    SEA. 


WHILE  standing  by  the  shore  of  the  sea,  contem- 
plating its  solemn  grandeur,  and  reflecting  upon 
its  mysteries,  we  are  apt  to  overlook  some  of  the  inter- 
esting and  wonderful  facts  connected  with  its  chemical 
history  and  character.  It  is  natural  that  what  is  palpable 
to  the  eye,  and  so  well  calculated  to  awaken  sublime  and 
poetic  emotions,  should  overpower  the  desire  to  study  the 
"hidden  things"  of  God,  as  connected  with  the  great 
deep.  It  would  be  difficult  at  the  sea-side  to  obtain  lis- 
teners to  a  lecture  upon  the  chemistry  of  the  sea ;  but  I 
venture  to  assume  that  under  the  less  busy  and  exciting 
circumstances  of  home,  the  topic  will  not  prove  devoid 
of  interest. 

That  which  usually  first  arrests  the  attention  of  visitors 
to  the  sea,  is  the  bitter  and  saline  character  of  the  waters, 
and  the  inquiry  is  made,  From  whence  arises  this  remark- 
able condition?  It  may  be  said  in  reply,  that  it  is  but  an 
exaggeration  of  that  of  ordinary  lakes,  and  rivers,  and 
springs ;  the  same  materials  exist  in  them,  only,  in  most 
instances,  in  infinitesimal  quantities.  As  the  atmosphere 
is  the  grand  reservoir  into  which  all  gaseous  or  vaporous 


48  CHEMISTRY    OF    THE    SEA. 

bodies  pass,  so  the  sea  is  the  vast  receptacle  into  which 
all  the  soluble  substances  washed  from  the  earth  are 
deposited.  All  kinds  of  soluble  matter,  washed  out  by 
percolating  rains,  descend  to  the  ocean,  by  the  agency  of 
brooks  and  rivers ;  and  as  there  is  no  outlet,  no  streams 
running  from  it,  to  carry  them  away,  and  as  in  the  pro- 
cess of  evaporation  they  are  left  behind,  these  soluble 
salts  and  minerals  have  been  accumulating  for  ages,  until 
they  form  prominent  constituents  of  the  waters.  All 
bodies  of  water  on  the  globe,  into  which  rivers  flow, 
but  from  which  there  is  no  outlet,  except  by  evaporation, 
must  necessarily  be  salt  lakes.  The  Great  Salt  Lake,  in 
Utah,  that  of  Aral,  near  the  Caspian,  and  the  Dead  Sea, 
in  Judea,  are  remarkable  examples  of  this  kind.  The 
Utah  basin  is  filled  with  a  saturated  solution  of  this  sub- 
stance. This  excessive  saline  condition  is  probably  due 
to  the  existence  of  large  bodies  of  salt  in  close  proximity, 
or  somewhere  within  the  reach  of  streams  that  flow  into 
it.  Chloride  of  sodium,  or  common  salt,  is  one  of  the 
most  abundant  of  all  the  soluble  substances  found  upon 
our  earth,  and  consequently  it  predominates  in  sea  waters. 
But  while  it  is  the  most  abundant  and  perhaps  the  most 
useful,  it  is  by  no  means  the  only  valuable  substance  car- 
ried into  the  sea.  In  quantity,  next  after  salt,  come  cer- 
tain combinations  of  magnesia,  next  salts  of  lime,  the 
carbonate  held  in  solution  by  excess  of  carbonic  acid, 
then  small  quantities  of  potash  and  oxide  of  iron,  and 
lastly,  a  trace  of  a  most  remarkable  elementary  body 
—  iodine. 

It  seems  a  trifling  and  unimportant  matter,  this  trace 
of  the  latter  substance  in  sea  water.     The  quantity  is  so 


CHEMISTRY    OF    THE    SEA.  49 

infinitesimally  small  as  scarcely  to  be  recognized  by 
chemical  tests  even  after  condensation  by  evaporation.  * 
Prior  to  the  year  1812  this  element  was  unknown.  It 
was  not  found  in  plants,  or  rocks,  or  earths,  or  springs,  in 
quantities  appreciable  to  the  chemistry  of  the  last  cen- 
tury ;  and  even  now  we  only  know  that  a  few  atoms  exist 
in  the  little  watercress,  and  a  few  other  aquatic  plants, 
and  in  some  springs  and  rocks ;  but  from  none  of  these 
sources  could,  probably,  a  single  ounce  be  obtained.  By 
the  solvent  power  of  water  the  minute  quantities  found 
upon  the  earth  are  taken  up  and  deposited  in  the  sea  ;  and 
the  Creator,  as  if  foreseeing  that  this  substance  would 
be  required  in  the  arts  to  be  cultivated  by  man,  has  pro- 
vided a  way  by  which  it  may  be  secured  and  appropri- 
ated to  his  purposes. 

But  before  dwelling  more  particularly  upon  iodine,  let 
us  return  to  a  brief  consideration  of  the  uses  in  sea  water 
of  some  of  the  other  soluble  constituents.  Everything 
in  nature  certainly  has  some  palpable  use.  It  is  no 
accident  or  casual  circumstance  that  the  sea  contains 
large  quantities  of  the  'lime  and  magnesia  salts.  What 
stupendous  results  flow  from  this  soluble  carbonate  of 
lime !  Without  it  where  could  shell-fish  procure  their 
coverings,  or  the  coral  polyps  the  material  for  their 
curious  structures?  The  shell  of  the  clam,  the  oyster, 
the  snail,  the  lobster,  etc.,  is  composed  almost  wholly 
of  carbonate  of  lime :  from  what  source  do  the  fish  ob- 
tain their  calcareous  coverings?  Young  oysters  in  two 
or  three  years  acquire  a  size  suited  to  be  used  as  an 
article  of  human  food.  The  little  gelatinous  speck 
floating  in  the  water  at  birth  has  through  some  channel 
4 


50  CHEMISTRY   OF   THE    SEA. 

obtained  two  or  three  ounces  of  solid  stone  armor  in  the 
short  space  of  thirty  or  forty  months.  It  had  no  power 
to  chisel  it  from  limestone  cliffs,  and  they  are  not  always 
found  in  the  vicinity  of  calcareous  deposits.  It  has  ab- 
sorbed or  drawn  it  from  the  water  in  which  it  moves ; 
no  other  source  supplies  it.  How  immense  are  the  beds 
of  shell-fish  upon  the  shores  of  the  ocean  !  What  a  vast 
concentration  of  the  lime,  once  held  in  solution,  is  effected 
by  these  feeble  creatures,  ranked  among  the  lowest  in  the 
order  of  animate  creation  ! 

But  still  more  wonderful  is  the  work  of  the  coral 
polyps.  The  geologist  and  the  navigator  will  readily 
appreciate  the  extent  to  which  the  surface  of  the  globe 
has  been  altered  and  modified,  both  in  ancient  and 
modern  times,  by  the  silent  labors  of  myriads  of  these 
creatures,  all  engaged  in  the  production  of  calcareous 
matter.  The  whole  peninsula  of  Florida  has  been  man- 
ufactured out  of  sea  water  by  the  little  polyps.  We  are 
indebted  to  them  for  our  marble  houses,  tombstones,  and 
mantel-pieces.  Powers's  Greek  Slave,  pronounced  by 
admirers  of  statuary  to  be  "  instinct  with  life,"  was 
probably  once  so  in  an  actual  rather  than  poetical 
sense.  The  marble  is  made  up  of  the  relics  of  these 
animals ;  and  if  from  comminution  they  are  not  apparent 
to  the  eye,  the  microscope  will  show  them.  It  is  prob- 
able that  nearly  if  not  quite  all  limestone  rock,  in  what- 
ever form  it  is  found,  is  of  animal  origin,  and  produced 
from  the  waters  of  the  sea. 

.  We  now  understand  how  vast  quantities  of  lime  are 
removed  from  sea  water  by  the  agency  of  living  organ- 
isms:  it  remains  to  notice  the  channels  through  which 


CHEMISTRY   OF   THE   SEA.  51 

iodine  is  separated,  and  placed  in  our  hands  for  use  in 
medicine  and  the  arts.  Human  industry  and  science 
could  never  separate  this  element  from  sea  water  in 
any  considerable  quantity,  and  the  power  denied  to  man 
has  been  bestowed*  upon  a  slimy,  repulsive  weed.  It 
is  fortunate  for  us  that  the  deep-sea  plants  have  had 
conferred  upon  them  a  strange  appetite,  and  that  the 
food  they  seek  is  in  part  the  sparsely  disseminated 
atoms  of  iodine.  It  is  probable  that  this  constituent  of 
sea  water  is  in  some  way  connected  with  the  well-being 
of  submarine  vegetation,  and  that  it  is  indispensable  to 
its  growth. 

Through  what  feeble  agencies  stupendous  results  are 
attained !  The  little  polyps  build  reefs  and  islands ; 
the  sea-plants  (which  every  wave  tears  from  their 
rocky  homes),  with  their  millions  of  open  mouths, 
suck  from  the  surrounding  waters  and  appropriate  as 
food  tons  upon  tons  of  substances,  otherwise  unob- 
tainable, and  without  which  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
and  important  arts  could  have  no  existence.  Seaweed 
possesses  the  remarkable  power  of  abstracting  from 
water,  iodine.  Let  us  inquire  by  what  process  of 
chemical  manipulation  it  is  forced  to  disgorge  its  pre- 
cious treasures. 

All  deep-sea  plants  are  more  or  less  rich  in  iodine ; 
but  the  Palmata  digitata,  that  leather-like  and  greasy 
weed,  with  long  round  stalk  and  wide  branches,  has  it 
in  greatest  abundance.  The  Irish  call  it  tangle  or  lieach, 
and  it  is  found  strewn  along  our  shores  in  large  quanti- 
ties after  storms.  But  even  this  holds  but  a  very  small 
quantity.  Every  ounce  of  iodine  upon  the  shelves  of  the 


52  CHEMISTRY    OF    THE    SEA. 

apothecary  has  required  at  least  four  hundred  pounds 
of  weeds  in  its  production.  About  thirty  tons  of  the  wet 
plants  give  one  ton  of  kelp,  as  the  incinerated  mass  is 
called,  and  from  this  nine  or  ten  pounds  of  iodine  is  ob- 
tained. This  would  seem  to  involve  a  prodigious  amount 
of  labor  and  expense,  bringing  a  high  price  upon  the 
products.  But  the  price  is  exceedingly  moderate,  sel- 
dom ranging  in  the  English  market  above  three  dollars 
per  pound.  It  would  never  pay  at  such  prices  to  man- 
ufacture if  the  weeds  did  not  yield  other  valuable  prod- 
ucts, as  potash  and  soda.  Without  stopping  to  consider 
in  detail  the  production  of  these  salts,  it  may  be  interest- 
ing to  know  that  probably  more  than  four  thousand  tons 
of  potash  and  two  thousand  of  soda  were  introduced  into 
the  English  market  the  past  year,  through  the  burning  of 
sea-plants  upon  the  coasts  of  Scotland  and  Ireland.  The 
entire  products  of  iodine  from  all  sources  must  reach 
nearly  or  quite  five  hundred  thousand  pounds.  How 
great  is  the  industrial  value  of  that  which  seems  the 
most  repulsive  and  worthless  of  all  the  products  of  na- 
ture !  To  what  science  are  we  indebted  for  opening  up 
this  great  source  of  wealth?  The  reader's  reply  may 
be  anticipated,  —  Chemistry. 

The  first  work  in  the  process  is  to  collect  the  plants ; 
they  are  then  spread  upon  the  ground  and  dried.  Raked 
together  in  heaps,  they  are  placed  in  rude  kilns,  made  of 
beach  stones,  and  burned.  The  red  mass  of  ashes  is 
stirred  until  it  cools  into  a  hard  cake,  called  kelp,  and 
is  then  ready  for  market  and  the  interesting  manipula- 
tions of  the  chemists. 


CHEMISTRY    OF    T^IE    SEA.  53 

The  chemist  breaks  up  the  kelp  into  small  pieces, 
puts  it  into  immense  tanks,  pours  on  water,  and  leaches, 
until  everything  soluble  is  secured.  He  then  evaporates 
the  ley,  and  removes  the  different  salts  in  the  order  of 
their  solubility.  First,  sulphate  of  potash  begins  to  crys- 
tallize ;  and  that  is  removed  while  hot :  as  the  liquor 
cools,  the  chloride  of  potassium  begins  to  appear  in 
beautiful  white  crystals;  and  that  is  removed.  The  ley 
is  again  boiled,  and  soon  the  soda  salts  appear ;  and  they 
are  removed ;  and  now  comes  the  iodine.  If  we  com- 
menced with  sixteen  hundred  gallons  of  ley,  we  have 
reduced  it  to  one  hundred  by  evaporation  and  removal 
of  the  soda  and  potash  salts :  this  holds  the  iodine  in 
the  form  of  iodate  of  soda  and  potassa.  We  must 
now  free  the  iodine  by  taking  up  the  soda  and  potassa 
(which  it  holds  in  combination)  with  sulphuric  acid ; 
accordingly,  we  add  until  it  is  saturated,  and  then  we 
remove  the  yellpw  liquid  to  a  style  for  sublimation. 
By  the  addition  of  heat  the  iodine  is  volatilized,  or  rises 
in  vapor,  and  distils  over  into  earthen  receptacles,  where 
it  is  condensed,  and  the  process  ends. 

How  often  at  the  sea-side  do  we  notice  th,e  disgust 
with  which  visitors  thrust  aside  the  slimy  weeds,  left 
upon  the  beach  by  the  receding  tide !  It  is  probable 
that  most  carry  about  with  them  the  photograph  of 
some  dear  friend  which  they  regard  as  a  precious  keep- 
sake ;  unconscious,  indeed,  are  they  of  the  connection 
which  exists  between  the  light  picture  carried  in  the 
bosom  and  the  marine  plants  trodden  beneath  their 
feet — a  connection  so  intimate,  that  without  the  latter 


54  CHEMISTRY   OF   THE   SEA. 

the  former  would  probably  be  unknown.  Iodine  and 
its  combinations  form  the  basis  of  the  photographic 
art ;  and  this  still  resting  undisturbed  in  the  vegetable 
organisms,  the  splendid  experiments  of  Daguerre  would 
have  been  miserable  failures. 


55 


CHEMISTRY   OF  A  BOWL  OF  MILK. 


IT  is  presumed  that  but  few  of  those,  in  city  or  country, 
who  sit  down  to  the  evening  meal,  consisting  main- 
ly of  a  bowl  of  milk,  know  anything  of  the  interesting 
chemical  nature  of  the  liquid  they  consume.  It  must 
be  plain,  however,  to  the  most  indifferent  observer,  that 
it  contains  hidden  supplies  of  nutriment  of  no  ordinary 
character,  as  the  most  striking  results  follow  from  its 
use  as  an  article  of  food. 

The  infant,  in  the  earliest  stage  of  existence,  appears 
almost  too  tender  and  fragile  to  be  raised  from  its  downy 
pillow.  In  a  few  months,  however,  it  becomes  strong 
and  lusty,  the  osseous  framework  is  firmly  knit  together, 
the  muscles  are  hard  and  flexible,  the  teeth  grow,  the 
nails  and  the  hair  push  out,  and  all  the  high  functions 
of  life  move  on  most  vigorously.  From  whence  come 
all  the  materials  which,  under  the  influence  of  the  chem- 
ical and  vital  forces,  accomplish  such  astonishing  re- 
sults? The  bones  must  have  an  abundance  of  lime 
and  phosphoric  acid,  and  so  must  the  teeth ;  the  blood 
must  have  iron,  and  soda,  and  potassa;  the  brain  de- 
mands phosphorus,  in  order  that  the  embryo  mind  may 
be  developed ;  the  muscles  need  the  nitrogneous  ele- 


56  CHEMISTRY   OF   A   BOWL   OF   MILK. 

ment,  and  fat  the  carbonaceous.  In  addition,  large 
quantities  of  water  are  needed,  to  maintain  in  harmoni- 
ous action  the  functions  of  life  and  growth.  Now, 
through  what  channel  can  these  numerous  chemical 
and  nutritive  elements  be  supplied  to  the  feeble  infant? 
The  colorless  and  almost  tasteless  liquid  which  we  call 
milk  supplies  them  all,  and  usually  just  in  the  right 
proportions.  In  this  nutriment,  which  has  been  pro- 
vided for  the  young  of  the  human  race,  and  of  the  higher 
classes  of  animals,  we  have  the  most  perfect  type  of  food 
in  general  that  it  is  possible  to  afford.  With  tender 
care,  provision  has  been  made  for  this  helpless  condi- 
tion in  life,  and  it  is  furnished  in  a  manner  which  con- 
fers upon  both  giver  and  recipient  the  most  placid  en- 
joyment and  happiness. 

It  is  easy  for  any  one  to  comprehend  how  it  is  possible 
to  supply  the  wants  of  the  adult  organism,  through  the 
variety  of  food  which  is  accessible  and  employed.  The 
bread,  flesh,  fish,  fruit,  and  vegetables,  and  even  water, 
so  largely  consumed,  may  be  easily  understood  to  furnish 
the  complex  and  diversified  chemical  elements  which  the 
system  requires ;  but  how  milk,  so  simple  in  its  physical 
characteristics,  can  embrace  the  essential  nutrient  princi- 
ples of  all  forms  of  food,  is  not  so  easily  comprehended. 
Let  us  for  a  moment  glance  at  the  composition  of  milk. 
It  contains,  ist,  a  rich,  nitrogenized  material,  caseine; 
2d,  fatty  principles ;  3d,  a  peculiar  sugar ;  4th,  various 
mineral  salts,  principally  consisting  of  phosphate  of  soda, 
phosphate  of  lime,  phosphate  of  iron,  phosphate  of  mag- 
nesia ;  the  potash,  it  is  curious  to  observe,  exists  in  the 
form  of  chloride  of  potassium.  The  substances  are  held 


CHEMISTRY    OF   A   BOWL   OF   MILK.  57 

in  suspension  by  water.  In  one  hundred  pints  of  milk 
there  are,  usually,  about  eighty-eight  pints  of  water.  It 
is  a  remarkable  fact  that  the  composition  of  the  milk  of 
carnivorous  animals,  as  the  lion  and  tiger,  does  not 
essentially  differ  from  that  of  the  herbivorous,  the  cow, 
goat,  &c.  According  to  Dumas,  however,  there  is  no 
sugar  in  the  milk  of  carnivorous  animals.  Cows'  milk 
and  human  milk  differ  in  the  characteristic  and  leading 
constituent,  caseine.  One  pint,  or  a  bowlful,  of  the 
former  affords  about  three  fourths  of  an  ounce,  while 
the  latter  gives  only  one  fourth  as  much  of  this  important 
substance ;  therefore,  in  substituting  cows'  milk  for  the 
other,  in  feeding  infants,  it  should  be  diluted  with  nearly 
two  parts  of  water.  Caseine  is  identical  in  composition 
with  the  muscular  substance,  and  with  the  albumen  of 
the  blood,  and  it  exists  in  milk  in  a  sohible  state.  How 
easy  it  is  of  digestion  and  assimilation !  The  feeble 
powers  of  the  infant  are  fully  equal  to  its  appropriation. 
By  a  molecular  change  of  the  simplest  kind  it  becomes 
the  material  of  flesh,  or  passes  into  the  cellular  tissues 
by  an  act  of  oxidation.  Hence  come  muscular  strength 
and  nervous  energy  to  the  young  offspring.  In  child- 
hood the  function  of  respiration  is  exceedingly  energetic, 
and  ordinary  food,  in  ordinary  quantities,  would  be  hard- 
ly equal  to  the  waste.  But  in  milk  we  have  provision 
made  for  this  demand.  We  have  two  non-nitrogenous 
bodies,  butter  and  sugar ;  these  burn,  in  the  body,  to 
carbonic  acid  and  water,  and  develop  the  necessary  heat. 
In  one  hundred  ounces  of  milk  there  is  about  half  an 
ounce  of  mineral  salts.  More  of  the  lime  being  needed 
to  form  the  body  structure,  it  is  furnished  in  milk  in  large 


58  CHEMISTRY   OF   A    BOWL   OF   MILK. 

excess  of  the  other  salts,  so  that  the  growth  of  the  bones 
keeps  pace  with  that  of  other  portions  of  the  body. 
The  trace  of  ferruginous  matter  is  all  that  is  needed  to 
supply  the  blood  with  the  little  iron  ships,  whose  offices 
are  to  load  with  oxygen  in  the  lungs,  and  voyage  it 
through  the  great  ducts  to  the  capillaries,  where  the 
butter  and  sugar  are  oxidized  or  burned  for  warmth. 
The  phosphate  of  soda  and  the  chloride  of  potassium 
find  their  appropriate  place  in  the  blood  and  secretions, 
and  perfect  harmony  and  efficiency  in  chemical  and 
vital  changes  are  secured.  Nothing  superfluous  is  to  be 
found  in  milk,  and  nothing  essential  to  the  well-being 
of  the  infant  has  been  omitted. 

What  is  man,  or  an  animal,  but  a  kind  of  chemical 
laboratory,  where  transmutations  and  changes  in  gross 
matter  are  going  on  constantly,  in  order  that  force  may 
be  developed,  and  the  machine  or  body  kept  in  motion? 
Is  an  atom  of  iron,  or  potash,  or  soda,  any  more  sacred, 
or  entitled  to  higher  consideration,  because  it  has  hap- 
pened to  be  absorbed  from  the  rocks  or  dust  by  vegetable 
growths  and  taken  into  the  body,  there  to  be  manipulated 
by  the  unseen  chemist,  and  perhaps  assigned,  for  a  brief 
period,  a  place  among  the  other  earthy  or  atmospheric 
constituents  of  the  flesh?  What  is  health  but  an  un- 
disturbed play  of  chemical  affinities  in  the  animal  organ- 
ism ?  What  is  disease  but  imperfect  chemical  reactions, 
or  insufficient  supply  of"  necessary  chemical  agents  in 
the  same? 

With  this  brief  and  imperfect  view  of  the  chemistry  of 
milk  as  an  article  of  food,  let  us  for  a  moment  look  at 
some  of  the  physical  and  chemical  changes  it  is  capable 


CHEMISTRY   OF   A   BOWL   OF   MILK.  59 

of  undergoing  in  the  various  processes  to  which  it  is  often 
subjected. 

Caseine  is  a  very  remarkable  substance,  and  is  found 
only  in  milk,  where  it  exists  in  a  state  of  perfect  solution. 
It  is  held  thus  by  the  presence  of  a  small  quantity  of 
alkali.  Now,  if  we  add  to  milk  a  few  drops  of  acid,  we 
neutralize  this,  and  the  caseine  coagulates  or  forms  a 
solid  body,  which  is  called  curd.  The  manufacture  of 
cheese  depends  upon  this  coagulation  of  caseine.  This 
result,  produced  under  the  influence  of  a  simple  wet 
membrane  without  acids,  is  a  phenomenon  so  remarkable 
that  it  is  no  wonder  it  has  excited  much  attention.  A  bit 
of  the  lining  of  a  calf's  stomach,  —  rennet,  —  placed  in 
milk,  precipitates  the  caseine  rapidly,  and  from  this 
cheese  is  formed. 

Berzelius  states  that  he  took  a  small  piece  of  this  mem- 
brane, washed  it  clean,  dried  it  as  completely  as  possible, 
weighed  it  carefully,  put  it  into  eighteen  hundred  times 
its  weight  of  milk,  and  heated  the  whole  to  1 20°  Fahren- 
heit. After  some  little  time  coagulation  was  complete. 
He  then  removed  the  membrane,  washed,  dried,  and 
once  more  weighed  it ;  the  loss  amounted  to  rather  more 
than  one  seventeenth  of  the  whole.  According  to  this 
experiment,  one  part  of  the  active  matter  dissolved  from 
the  membrane  had  coagulated  about  thirty  thousand  of 
the  milk.  Does  chemistry  explain  satisfactorily  this 
wonderful  effect  of  infinitesimal  quantities  of  rennet  upon 
milk?  It  does.  The  change  is  due  to  the  presence  of 
"  sugar  of  milk"  in  the  milk.  This  substance  is  peculiar- 
ly prone  to  pass  over  into  lactic  acid,  under  favorable 
conditions,  by  appropriating  the  elements  of  water.  The 


60  CHEMISTRY    OF   A   BOWL    OF   MILK. 

membrane  acts  as  a  ferment,  lactic  acid  fermentation  is 
set  up,  and  a  minute  quantity  of  that  acid  is  produced ; 
this  immediately  acts  upon  the  caseine,  coagulating  it  and 
producing  curd.  Without  the  aid  of  the  membrane  milk 
will  precipitate  the  curd.  There  is  no  lactic  acid  in  fresh 
milk,  but,  after  a  few  hours  in  a  warm  place,  it  makes  its 
appearance,  the  caseine  falls,  and  it  becomes  sour.  This 
could  not  occur  if  no  sugar  was  present  in  the  milk. 
The  thin,  pale-colored,  translucent  liquid  remaining  after 
the  curd  is  removed,  called  "  whey,"  consists  mainly  of 
water,  holding  the  saline  constituents  and  the  sugar  of 
milk.  The  curd,  after  it  is  salted  and  pressed,  undergoes 
a  particular  kind  of  putrefactive  change,  which  gives 
flavor  to  the  cheese. 

Milk,  examined  by  the  aid  of  a  microscope,  presents  to 
the  eye  myriads  of  remarkably  minute  globular  particles, 
suspended  in  a  thin  liquid.  These  particles  are  termed 
butter,  and  rise  to  the  top  upon  standing,  bringing  with 
them  a  portion  of  the  caseine  and  serum,  and  thus  form 
cream.  By  agitation,  or  churning,  the  fatty  matter  is 
separated  from  the  milk,  and  butter  is  produced. 

The  secretion  or  production  of  milk  may  be  very 
seriously  and  detrimentally  interfered  with.  By  the  em- 
ployment of  certain  articles  in  the  food,  the  color,  odor, 
taste,  and  medicinal  effect  of  milk  may  be  modified ; 
and  this  is  so  well  understood  by  physicians,  that  in 
France  children  are  brought  under  the  influence  of 
medicine  administered  to  the  mother.  And  further,  a 
new  form  of  treatment  has  been  instituted,  which  is  based 
upon  the  plan  of  administering  to  animals  certain  reme- 
dial agents,  and  causing  patients  to  live  upon  the  milk  of 


CHEMISTRY   OF   A    BOWL    OF   MILK.  6 1 

the  animals.  It  is  evident  we  cannot  be  too  strongly  im- 
pressed with  the  importance  of  providing  pure,  healthy 
milk  for  children.  The  state  of  health  of  the  female  has 
much  to  do  with  the  quality  of  the  milk ;  and  a  sickly 
mother  should  hesitate  before  jeopardizing  the  well-being 
of  the  infant  by  allowing  it  to  feed  at  the  maternal  foun- 
tain. 

It  is  equally  as  important  that  cows'  milk  should  come 
from  perfectly  healthy  animals.  Labillardiero  states  that 
the  milk  of  a  cow,  affected  by  a  species  of  phthisis,  con- 
tained seven  times  more  phosphate  of  lime  than  usual ; 
and  Dupuy  also  noticed  the  large  quantity  of  calcareous 
matter  in  milk  from  cows  similarly  affected.  Diseased 
milk  may  be  known  by  its  want  of  homogeneousness,  an 
imperfect  liquidity,  a  tendency  to  become  viscid  on  the 
addition  of  ammonia,  and,  on  microscopic  examination, 
the  presence  of  certain  globules  not  found  in  healthy 
milk. 

The  adulteration  of  milk,  by  additions  of  water,  is  a 
very  common  practice  by  milk-venders  in  cities.  It  is  a 
matter  of  regret  that,  owing  to  the  great  inequality  in  the 
amount  of  water  found  in  cows'  milk,  the  conviction  of 
offenders  in  court  is  rendered  a  matter  of  so  much  diffi- 
culty. Much,  however,  may  be  done,  by  vigilant,  well- 
directed  efforts,  to  arrest  the  monstrous  frauds  in  milk  in 
our  cities. 


CHEMISTRY    OF    THE    DWELLING. 


THE  chemistry  of  the  dwelling  is  a  subject  which 
should  interest  every  person  living  in  a  civilized 
country,  and  surrounded  with  the  household  blessings 
and  comforts  which  science  and  art  confer.  And  yet 
how  few  there  are,  comparatively,  who  have  studied  or 
inquired  respecting  the  chemical  processes  going  forward, 
and  the  devices  and  appliances  of  modern  science,  which 
contribute  so  directly  to  our  well-being  and  comfort  with- 
in the  walls  of  our  own  dwellings.  Let  us,  while  per- 
chance the  storm  howls  fitfully  without,  draw  closer 
around  the  parlor  fire,  and  consider,  for  a  little  time,  the 
wonderful  and  beautiful  chemical  processes  which  we 
witness  upon  either  hand,  and  which,  if  suspended  for  a 
single  day,  would  be  productive  of  so  much  discomfort 
and  danger.  Without  the  intense  diffusive  light  proceed- 
ing from  the  burning  of  the  oil,  or  wax,  or  spirituous 
liquid  upon  the  table,  or  of  the  invisible  gas  from  the 
suspended  jet,  we  should  be  unable  to  gaze  upon  each 
other's  happy  faces,  or  read  the  pages  of  a  book,  or 
pursue,  after  nightfall,  the  usual  avocations  of  the 
family.  Without  the  blazing  coals  within  the  grate,  or 
the  wood  upon  the  hearth,  or  the  warm  air  or  steam 


64  CHEMISTRY    OF   THE    DWELLING. 

passing  into  the  room  through  the  proper  channels,  we 
should  become  chilled  and  benumbed  with  cold,  and  dis- 
ease and  death  would  supervene. 

We  are  all  constant  chemical  experimenters,  although 
we  may  be  unconscious  of  the  fact.  The  lecturer,  sur- 
rounded with  his  strange  compounds  and  curious  appara- 
tus, delights  us  with  his  attractive  and  brilliant  experi- 
ments ;  and  yet,  there  are  but  few  more  interesting  or 
wonderful  than  we  perform  in  lighting  our  parlor  fires, 
preceded  as  the  act  usually  is,  by  the  ignition  of  a  com- 
mon match. 

Fifty  years  ago  the  lighting  of  a  match  by  the  slight 
friction  necessary,  would  have  been  regarded  with  amaze- 
ment, and  any  public  exhibitor  of  the  experiment  might 
have  been  punished  as  a  necromancer.  There  are  thou- 
sands living,  whose  knuckles  have  been  torn  with  the  old 
flint  and  steel,  who  remember  the  progressive  introduc- 
tion of  quicker  and  better  methods  of  producing  fire. 
Our  grandfathers,  when-  the  tinder  in  the  horn  was  damp 
and  obstinately  determined  not  to  "  catch,"  were  accus- 
tomed to  take  down  the  old  "  King's-arm  "  from  its  dusty 
resting-place  upon  the  wall,  and  flash  gunpowder  by  the 
aid  of  its  massive,  rusty  lock,  thereby  procuring  fire  to 
warm  their  breakfast  of  porridge  or  johnny-cake.  It  was 
no  unusual  occurrence  to  hear  a  report,  and  see  the  big 
powder-horn  fly  up  chimney,  simultaneously  with  the 
click  of  the  lock,  as  our  grand-parents,  with  all  their 
virtues,  were  careless,  like  other  men. 

In  this  advanced  age  (thanks  to  chemical  science),  we 
have  a  more  excellent  way ;  and  now  let  us,  as  a  matter 
pertaining  to  the  chemistry  of  the  dwelling,  describe  briefly 


CHEMISTRY    OF    THE    DWELLING.  65 

the  history  and  chemistry  of  the  friction  match.  The  in- 
vention of  the  phosphorus  match  was  preceded  by  others 
less  convenient  and  more  uncertain  in  their  character, 
but  all  a  vast  improvement  upon  the  flint  and  steel.  The 
history  of  the  match  forms  no  exception  to  the  rule,  that 
all  discoveries  are  progressive  in  their  nature,  that  all 
products  of  the  inventive  faculty  must  pass  through  the 
chrysalis  state  before  reaching  entire  perfection. 

While  people  in  affluent  circumstances  in  cities  were 
indulging  in  the  use  of  the  fire  syringe  and  the  acid  bot- 
tle, to  produce  fire,  contrivances  which  were  regarded  as 
marvels  in  science,  there  appeared,  about  thirty  years  ago, 
in  the  market,  a  little  square  paper  box,  containing  two 
dozen  strips  of  wood  with  a  mass  of  black,  ugly-looking 
composition  upon  the  end  of  each. 

A  piece  of  sand-paper  was  found  carefully  folded  in  the 
top  of  the  box.  One  of  these  matches,  drawn  rapidly 
through  .the  sand-paper,  ignited  with  a  slight  report. 
The  price  per  box,  upon  their  first  appearance,  was  one 
shilling,  and  the  manufacturers  were  busy  for  a  time  in 
supplying  them  at  this  exorbitant  price.  The  sensation 
created  by  their  appearance  was  about  equal  to  that  pro- 
duced by  Franklin,  at  the  time  of  his  discovery  of  the  elec- 
tricity of  the  clouds,  nearly  a  century  since.  These  were 
the  famous  Lucifer  Matches,  the  worthy  predecessors  of 
the  friction  match  of,  the  present  time.  Perhaps  it  would 
have  been  better  that  invention  had  gone  no  further:' 
certainly,  this  method  of  producing  combustion  was  rapid 
and  easy  enough ;  but  some  considerable  pressure  was 
required  to  produce  the  necessary  friction,  and  sometimes 
the  top  was  pulled  off  without  being  ignited,  the  sulphur- 
5 


66  CHEMISTRY    OF    THE    DWELLING. 

ous  antimonial  vapor  was  regarded  as  pernicious  to  per* 
sons  with  weak  lungs,  and  so,  upon  the  appearance  of  its 
great  rival,  in  a  few  months  it  fell  into  entire  neglect. 

In  obtaining  fire,  or  causing  combustion,  the  most 
readv  method  is  by  the  use  of  friction.  The  spark  fol 
lowing  the  stroke  of  the  flint  upon  the  steel  is  produced 
by  friction.  A  minute  portion  of  the  steel  is  clipped  off 
by  contact  of  the  flint,  and  it  is  rendered  incandescent,  or 
heated  to  a  white  heat,  by  the  concussion ;  this  falling 
upon  tinder,  or  a  thin  film  of  carbon,  it  is  set  on  fire. 

Friction  raises  the  temperature  of  bodies,  and  some 
bodies  burn  at  so  low  temperatures,  that  the  slightest 
movement  across  a  rough  surface  is  all  that  is  requisite 
to  cause  them  to  burst  into  a  flame.  Sulphur  and  phos- 
phorus are  bodies  that  inflame  at  low  temperatures,  and 
these  are  consequently  employed  in  the  manufacture  of 
matches. 

The  latter  is  a  most  remarkable  element ;  its  greedi- 
ness for  oxygen  is  so  great  that  it  attracts  it,  and  burns 
spontaneously  in  contact  with  air.  In  the  manufacture 
of  a  phosphorus  match,  a  splint  of  light  wood  is  dipped 
in  melted  sulphur,  after  drying,  it  is  again  dipped  in 
softened  phosphorus.  If  left  in  this  condition,  it  would 
be  vastly  more  dangerous  than  in  its  finished  state,  and 
would  be  entirely  unsafe  to  harbor  in  our  dwellings.  To 
prevent  spontaneous  combustion  and  protect  the  phos- 
phorus from  contact  with  air,  the  match  is  again  dipped 
in  gelatine  or  glue,  which  is  the  third  and  last  coating  it 
receives.  In  igniting  it,  the  friction  disrupts  the  film  of 
glue,  raises  the  temperature  of  the  phosphorus  so  that  it 
burns  —  this  in  turn  ignites  the  sulphur,  that  the  wood, 


CHEMISTRY    OF   THE    DWELLING,  67 

and  thus  the  beautiful  experiment  of  producing  instan- 
taneous flame  is  complete. 

The  discovery  of  phosphorus,  and  of  easy  and  rapid 
methods  for  its  manufacture  or  isolation  from  the  bones 
of  animals,  is  among  the  most  striking  and  important  of 
the  triumphs  of  chemical  science.  How  apparent  the 
wisdom  and  goodness  of  the  Creator  in  calling  into  exist- 
ence an  element  of  such  singular  properties,  so  inflamma- 
ble that  the  warmth  of  the  hand  is  sufficient  to  cause  it 
to  burst  into  flame !  As  if  fearful  that  so  dangerous 
as  well  as  useful  a  substance  might  prove  an  enemy 
rather  than  a  friend  to  the  race,  before  progress  had  been 
made  in  the  arts  of  civilized  life,  He  diffused  it  very 
sparsely  in  the  ancient  rocks  in  such  condition  as  to  be 
entirely  unobtainable  without  the  aid  of  science.  The 
conditions  upon  which  we,  with  all  our  skill,  are  enabled 
to  procure  it  in  quantities,  are  peculiar.  We  do  not  go 
to  the  rocks  for  it,  but  are  compelled  to  wait  until,  by  the 
operations  of  nature,  it  is  dislodged  from  them,  and  fitted 
for  plant  aliment  or  food.  Transferred  from  ancient 
lavas,  and  plutonic  masses,  to  plants,  it  is  consumed  by 
animals,  and,  passing  through  the  circulation,  it  finds  a 
resting-place  in  the  bones,  from  which,  by  calcination  and 
other  processes,  the  chemist  obtains  it  in  large  quantities. 
How  circuitous  is  the  path  it  travels  before  it  finds  lodg- 
ment upon  the  end  of  a  match  !  Truly,  we  cannot  but 
regard  a  thing  so  common  with  interest,  when  we  remem- 
ber its  origin  and  chemical  history. 

In  the  ignition  of  the  match  we  have  set  in  motion  a 
series  of  changes  which  have  resulted  in  the  burning  or 
destruction  of  its  substance.  In  its  employment  to  ignite 


68  CHEMISTRY    OF    THE    DWELLING. 

the  combustibles  in  the  grate,  or  to  light  the  jet  c  f  gas,  or 
the  candle,  or  lamp,  we  have  thereby  caused  an  activity 
of  slumbering  chemical  forces,  which  are  slowly  pro- 
ducing in  those  bodies  similar  changes.  We  notice  that 
they  continually  waste  away  —  we  see  the  ashes  cleave 
off  from  the  mass  of  coals  or  wood,  the  falling  of  the  line 
of  oil  in  the  lamp,  and  the  candle's  flame  burns  lower  and 
lower  until  it  reaches  its  socket  —  and  expires.  These 
changes  we  notice,  and,  untaught  by  science,  should  be 
left  to  suppose  that  we  had  destroyed  or  annihilated  a 
small  portion  of  the  materials  of  God's  universe.  Science 
teaches  that  this  is  entirely  beyond  our  power.  How- 
ever strong  and  mighty  man  may  be  in  modifying  or 
controlling  the  elements  created  by  Omnipotence,  he  can 
never  create  or  destroy  a  single  atom. 

Since  that  auspicious  moment  when  sunlight  burst 
through  the  chaotic  darkness  which  enveloped  our  planet, 
we  have  reason  to  believe  that  nothing  has  been  added  to 
or  taken  from  its  mass. 

If  our  sense  of  sight  was  competent  to  observe  the 
invisible  operations  of  nature,  we  should  see  in  our  parlor 
fires  not  only  the  flame,  and  the  smoke,  and  the  ashes, 
but  those  subtle  exhalations,  the  products  of  the  burning, 
which  pass  up  the  chimney  and  become  dissipated  in  the 
ocean  of  air  without. 

How  apparently  desirable  would  be  an  acuteness  of  the 
visual  organs,  so  that  we  could  see  the  little  infinitesimal 
atoms  of  matter  grouped  and  compacted  together,  form- 
ing coal,  and  oil,  and  wax,  and  tallow,  all  ready  for  the 
warm  embrace  of  the  oxygen  of  the  air,  which,  by 
uniting,  rends  them  ruthlessly  asunder.  Seated  in  our 


CHEMISTRY    OF    THE    DWELLING.  69 

parlors,  we  could  watch  at  our  ease  the  elemental 
changes,  the  dissolution,  and  the  new  birth  of  bodies 
during  the  process  of  combustion. 

From  an  enumeration  of  the  different  kinds  of  little 
atoms  or  elements  in  the  wood,  coal,  gas,  oil,  tallow,  and 
wax,  we  learn  that  out  of  the  sixty,  which  the  Creator  em- 
ployed in  constructing  the  world  and  all  things  therein, 
he  has  made  use  mainly  of  but  three  in  forming  these 
substances.  Therefore,  in  all  that  concerns  the  chemistry 
of  ligh^  and  warmth,  we  have  to  study  the  changes  and 
modifications  of  but  three  different  kinds  of  materials  — 
a  field  apparently  circumscribed  and  easily  explored. 

The  gas,  oil,  tallow,  &c.,  differ  in  composition  from 
wood  and  coal  in  being  formed  from  carbon  and  hydro- 
gen only,  without  any  ash-forming  elements.  These  two 
are  grouped  together  in  slightly  varying  proportipns,  by 
the  burning  of  which  we  obtain  light  and  heat.  The 
burning  of  these  two  elements  is  produced  by  a  third 
body  rushing  in  whenever  the  temperature  is  raised  to  a 
certain  point,  and,  violently  uniting  .itself  with  them,  pro- 
ducing, by  the  union,  extraordinary  warmth ;  which, 
diffusing  itself,  is  very  agreeable  to  our  cold,  benumbed 
bodies  in  winter. 

This  third  powerful  combatant  or  element  is  oxygen, 
the  most  important  and  essential  of  all  the  material  crea- 
tions of  the  great  Architect.  It  is  gaseous  in  its  nature, 
and,  although  unseen  by  human  eyes,  it  plays  a  most  con- 
spicuous part  in  the  great  operations  of  Nature.  Its  im- 
portance may  be  understood  by  a  contemplation  of  the 
fact,  that,  in  connection  with  nitrogen,  it  forms  the  vast 
volume  of  the  atmosphere,  and,  in  combination  with 


70  CHEMISTRY    OF    THE    DWELLING. 

hydrogen,  water,  which,  in  the  shape  of  oceans  of  un- 
known depths,  lakes,  and  rivers,  occupies  three  fourths  of 
the  surface  of  our  planet.  The  solid  earth  we  dwell  upon 
is  chiefly  made  up  of  oxygen,  in  union  with  silicon,  alu- 
minum, and  calcium,  the  metallic  base  of  lime. 

The  carbon  and  hydrogen  materials  burned  in  the  par- 
lor are  seized  and  consumed  by  the  oxygen  ever  present 
in  the  air.  It  exists  there  in  a  free,  aeriform  condition., 
and  seems  to  be  ever  upon  the  watch  for  heat-producing 
agencies,  so  that  it  may  be  enabled  to  fix  its  corrosive 
teeth  upon  the  wood  or  coal  to  rend  them  asunder. 

We  wish  to  observe  the  changes  attendant  upon  the 
process  of  burning,  from  the  beginning  to  the  end.  We 
have  learned  from  experience  that  wood  takes  fire  and 
burns  more  readily  than  coal,  and  chemistry  affords  the 
reason.  It  is  because  it  contains  a  greater  number  of 
inflammable  atoms  of  hydrogen  than  coal,  and  the  softer 
the  wood  the  easier  it  ignites ;  hence  we  place  splints 
of  wood  or  shavings  at  the  bottom  of  the  grate,  and  upon 
this  the  coal.  The  hot  hydrogen  flame  of  the  wood  soon 
ignites  the  hard  carbon  of  the  coal,  and  the  whole  is  in  an 
active  state  of  combustion.  The  invisible  oxygen  around 
the  pile  rushes  in,  drawn  by  an  irresistible  affinity ;  the 
infinitesimal  atoms  of  hydrogen  yield  first  to  his  embrace, 
then  the  carbon,  and  both  by  the  union  are  instantly 
metamorphosed  or  changed  into  new  and  very  different 
bodies. 

These  new  bodies  that  are  produced  are  called  the 
•products  of  combustion.  In  this  hot  contest  for  new 
combinations,  we  notice  that  it  requires  eight  atoms 
of  the  oxygen  to  master  one  of  the  hydrogen  ;  seven,  six, 


CHEMISTRY    OF    THE    DWELLING.  *jl 

or  five  cannot  appropriate  the  single  hydrogen  atom  to 
form  the  desired  union  ;  the  eight  join  themselves  to  the 
one,  and  the  nine,  with  the  rapidity  of  the  lightning  flash, 
are  changed  into  an  atom  of  wafer. 

The  carbon  of  the  coal  and  wood  unites  with  the  oxygen 
of  the  air  in  two  proportions.  When  atom  joins  atom, 
a  new  substance,  called  carbonic  oxide,  is  produced ; 
but  when  two  atoms  of  oxygen  join  one  of  carbon,  a  sour, 
poisonous  body  results,  called  carbonic  acid.  These  three 
new  bodies,  the  water,  the  carbonic  oxide,  and  carbonic 
acid,  become  heated  and  ascend  the  chimney-flue  and 
diffuse  themselves  through  the  air  without. 

In  the  escape  of  these  bodies  we  lose  no  substance  that 
can  be  more  completely  burned  or  changed,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  carbonic  oxide.  This  gaseous  body  can 
and  should  be  burned  again  before  it  is  allowed  to  escape, 
for  it  is  capable  of  affording  us  a  further  supply  of  heat. 
If  we  can  compel  the  carbon,  by  increasing  the  heat,  and 
opposing  barriers  to  its  escape,  to  take  up  two  atoms  of 
oxygen  instead  of  one,  we  thereby  burn  or  oxidize  it 
completely,  and  we  obtain  all  the  heat  possible.  If  the 
wood  or  coal  were  burned  completely,  there  would  be  but 
two  products  of  combustion  besides  the  ashes,  viz.,  water 
and  carbonic  acid.  This  important  matter  of  the  proper 
method  of  burning  coal  will  be  alluded  to  again. 

The  ashes  we  observe  cleaving  off  from  the  fuel  contains 
the  earthy  matter  which  the  tree  obtained  from  the  earth 
during  growth.  Besides  silex,  or  sand,  the  ashes  of  wood 
contains  potash,  so  important  in  the  manufacture  of  soap. 
In  coal  there  is  usually  found  a  trace  of  sulphur,  which, 
in  burning,  unites  with  oxygen,  forming  sulphurous  acid. 


72  CHEMISTRY    OF   THE    DWELLING. 

Let  us  look  at  the  coal  and  the  wood  upon  the  hearth 
with  our  vision  quickened  and  perfected,  so  that  not  only 
will  the  composition  of  these  substances  'be  apparent,  but 
the  whole  process  of  burning  also.  In  the  coal  we  ob- 
serve black  carbon  predominating  in  the  aggregation  of 
atoms.  In  the  hard  anthracite  there  are  ninety-one  little 
atoms  of  carbon  in  the  hundred  to  nine  of  other  elements. 
The  nine  are  seen  to  be  hydrogen,  and  those  that  form 
the  ashes.  We  notice  a  difference  in  a  soft  bituminous 
coal,  there  being  a  less  number  of  carbon  atoms  and  more 
hydrogen. 

Wood,  although  entirely  different  in  color,  is  seen  to  be 
made  up  of  the  same  elements.  Hard  woods,  like  oak 
and  hickory,  have  the  larger,  while  soft  pine  and  maple 
have  the  smaller  number  of  atoms  of  carbon.  All  varie- 
ties of  wood,  however,  have  a  much  larger  amount  of 
inflammable  hydrogen  than  the  hard  varieties  of  coal. 

A  beautiful  experiment,  indeed,  do  we  perform  in  insti- 
tuting the  process  of  combustion.  Interesting  and  attrac- 
tive as  it  is  in  itself,  how  seldom  should  we  indulge  in  it, 
did  not  the  necessities  of  our  existence  demand  its  con- 
stant repetition  !  The  production  of  heat  is  the  great  end 
we  have  in  view  in  kindling  and  maintaining  our  parlor 
fires.  Man  in  a  savage  state  in  tropical  climates  is  quite 
independent  of  the  uses  of  fire  ;  but  such  is  not  the  case 
with  civilized  man.  He  finds  it  necessary  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  his*  food,  although  the  body  is  heated  by  the 
intense  solar  rays  of  the  tropics. 

Heat  is  a  constant  attendant  upon  the  burning  process. 
Whenever  and  wherever  the  element  oxygen  joins  itself 
to  hydrogen  or  carbon,  or  any  of  the  inorganic  elements, 


CHEMISTRY    OF    THE    DWELLING.  73 

as  iron  or  zinc,  the  union  is  attended  by  the  evolution 
of  heat.  These  elements  will  always  rush  together,  and 
burn  and  destroy  each  other  when  circumstances  permit. 
There  is  a  class  of  compounds  denominated  oxides  or 
rust.  Oxygen,  uniting  with  iron,  forms  rust  of  iron.  In 
the  union  of  the  one  with  the  other,  a  fixed  amount  of 
heat  is  evolved,  no  matter  whether  the  rusting  process 
goes  on  slowly  or  rapidly.  The  iron  implements  and 
vessels  found  at  Pompeii,  which  have  been  slowly  burn- 
ing or  rusting  for  eighteen  centuries,  have  evolved  as 
much  heat  in  the  process  as  would  have  resulted,  had 
they  been  burned  instantaneously  in  an  atmosphere  of 
pure  oxygen.  The  process  of  decay  in  vegetable  sub- 
stances is  an  oxidizing  process,  and  heat  is  evolved. 
Water,  properly  speaking,  is  the  rust  of  hydrogen,  and 
in  its  formation,  by  uniting  with  oxygen,  an  enormous 
amount  of  heat  is  developed.  The  union  of  the  oxygen 
of  the  air  with  the  coal  in  the  grate,  or  the  wood  upon 
the  hearth,  produces  the  same  phenomenon.  It  would 
be  gratifying  to  know  more  of  the  nature  of  heat,  and 
also  of  light  and  electricity ;  but,  since  it  is  denied  us,  we 
may  indeed  be  grateful  that  the  beautiful  principles  and 
changes  involved  in  combustion  are  so  clearly  unfolded 
by  science. 

The  fallacies  of  past  ages,  as  it  respects  correct  knowl- 
edge of  natural  phenomena,  are  in  no  way  more  forcibly 
illustrated  than  in  the  prevalent  theories  respecting  com- 
bustion. Before  the  discovery  of  oxygen  gas,  it  was  ex- 
plained by  supposing  that  all  bodies  contained  a  principle 
called  phlogiston,  the  presence  of  which  enabled  them  to 
burn.  When  a  body  burned,  it  was  supposed  phlogiston 


74  CHEMISTRY    OF    THE    DWELLING. 

was  liberated,  and  that  when  it  lost  phlogiston,  it  ceased 
to  be  combustible  ;  it  was  then  said  to  be  dephlogisticated. 
The  heat  and  light  which  accompany  combustion  were 
attributed  to  the  rapidity  with  which  the  principle  was 
evolved. 

If  such  an  hypothesis  were  correct,  the  coal  or  other 
burned  body  ought  to  weigh  less  after  the  process ; 
whereas  it  was  found  that  the  results  of  combustion 
were  heavier  than  before  the  combustion  took  place. 
As  soon  as  methods  were  devised  by  which  the  three 
great  classes  of  acids,  alkalies,  and  oxides,  the  products 
of  combustion,  could  be  secured  and  examined,  the  theory 
was  disproved. 

There  is  no  known  method  by  which  heat  can  be  meas- 
ured. The  heat  evolved  depends  not  upon  the  coal  or 
wood,  but  upon  the  quantity  of  oxygen  which  enters  into 
combination  with  them  in  burning.  The  oxygen  supplied 
to  the  coal  or  wood,  is  obtained  from  the  room  or  apart- 
ment in  which  the  burning  process  is  going  forward. 
This,  of  course,  would  soon  fail  to  furnish  the  requisite 
amount  to  the  fire,  were  there  no  sources  of  supply. 
Through  some  avenue,  the  air  from  without  must  find 
its  way  into  the  parlor  to  feed  the  fire,  and  furnish 
oxygen  to  the  lungs  of  the  occupants.  The  usual  places 
of  ingress  are  the  cracks  and  crevices  of  the  doors  and 
windows.  A  window,  with  the  usual  accuracy  of  fittings, 
will  allow  about  eight  cubic  feet  of  air  to  pass  into  the 
room  each  minute;  an  ordinary  door  will  admit  rather 
more  if  it  open  directly  into  the  air.  When  we  reflect 
that  each  individual  in  a  room  ought  to  have  at  least  four 
cubic  feet  of  air  per  minute  for  respira*ion,  and  that 


CHEMISTRY    OF   THE    DWELLING.  75 

during  the  evening  every  source  of  flame  as  large  as  one 
candle  vitiates  one  cubic  foot  more,  we  see  how  important 
a  good  su  :>ply  of  air  is  for  other  purposes  than  to  afford 
oxygen  to  the  fire.  I  would  not  wish  to  be  understood  to 
say  that  each  individual's  respiration  converts  the  oxygen 
of  four  cubic  feet  of  air  into  carbonic  acid  each  minute, 
but  that  that  amount  is  rendered  unfit  for  further  respira- 
tory use  ;  every  pound  of  hard  anthracite  coal  burning  in 
the  grate  absorbs  from  the  air  of  the  room  about  two  and 
one  half  pounds  of  oxygen,  and  at  least  fifteen  pounds  of 
air  is  deoxygenized  to  furnish  it.  A  parlor  of  common 
size,  twenty  feet  by  thirteen,  and  ten  feet  high,  contains 
about  two  hundred  pounds  of  air ;  it  is  evident,  since 
three  and  one  half  pounds  of  carbonic  acid  are  produced 
from  each  pound  of  coal,  that,  if  it  were  permitted  to  per- 
meate the  room,  it  would  render  one  fourth  part  of  the 
air,  at  least,  poisonous.  This,  diffused  throughout,  would 
cause  death  to  the  inmates  in  a  short  period  of  time. 

How  impresssive  the  fact,  that  by  the  marvellous 
chemical  processes  which  we  are  obliged  to  institute  to 
render  our  climate  habitable,  we  call  into  existence  an 
agency  which  is  potent  to  destroy  almost  instanta- 
neously !  If,  upon  a  cold  winter's  day,  we  consume,  in 
our  parlor  grates  or  stoves,  twenty  pounds  of  coal,  there 
has  been  poured  out  upon  the  air  seventy  pounds  of  poi- 
sonous carbonic  acid,  which  would  render  irrespirable,  if 
not  diffused  beyond  a  point  contaminating  and  destructive, 
about  two  hundred  and  eighty  pounds  of  air.  When  we 
contemplate  this  fact,  and  reflect  upon  the  thousands  and 
tens  of  thous  inds  of  open  ducts,  which  are  pouring  out 
the  poisonous  exhalation  in  enormous  quantities  in  large 


76  CHEMISTRY    OF   THE    DWELLING. 

cities,  a  momentary  feeling  of  apprehension  pervades  the 
mind,  and*  the  knowledge  that  the  specific  gravity  or 
weight  of  the  deadly  gas  is  greater  than  the  air,  does 
not  diminish  that  apprehension.  But  chemistry  dissipates 
our  fears,  and  points  to  the  wonderful  provisions  of  the 
Divine  Author  to  avert  the  apparent  evil. 

If  the  heavy  carbonic  acid  so  copiously  evolved,  were 
simply  to  obey  the  natural  laws  of  gravitation,  and  de- 
scend into  the  streets  of  cities  and  large  towns,  a  most 
dreadful  asphyxia  would  instantly  seize  upon  every  man, 
woman,  and  child,  and  in  the  short  space  of  a  few  mo- 
ments, not  a  breathing  inhabitant  would  remain.  But 
the  law  of  gaseous  diffusion  comes  in  here,  and  shows 
us  that  there  is  a  "  higher  law  "  than  that  of  gravitation, 
which  is  intended  for  our  preservation.  By  its  irresistible 
agency,  the  heavy  poisonous  gas  is  not  permitted  to  fall, 
but,  at  the  moment  of  its  production,  it  is  blended  and 
diffused  through  the  mass  of  air,  upwards  as  well  as 
downwards,  and  is  wafted  by  the  winds  in  all  directions. 
The  wonderful  nature  of  this  law  of  gaseous  diffusion  is 
forcibly  illustrated  by  experiment.  If  we  take  two  gases 
of  most  opposite  qualities,  as  it  respects  weight,  carbonic 
acid  gas,  and  hydrogen,  and  place  them  in  two  vessels 
communicating  with  each  other  by  a  narrow  tube,  we 
shall  find  in  a  very  short  time  that  perfect  mixture  has 
occurred.  This  will  take  place  if  we  reverse  the  order 
of  their  specific  gravities,  by  placing  the  hydrogen  in  a 
higher  vessel,  and  the  carbonic  acid  in  the  lower ;  a  wet 
membrane  may  divide  them,  and  we  shall  prove  that 
there  is  a  strange  tendency  to  unite.  Carbonic  acid  is 
more  than  twenty  times  heavier  than  hydrogen,  and  it 


CHEMISTRY    OF   THE    DWELLING.  77 

would  seem  that  while  the  tendency  of  the  former  must 
be  downwards,  the  latter  would  be  upwards..  But  such 
is  not  the  case ;  they  shortly  become  thoroughly  blended 
together.  This  law  holds  good  in  the  mingling  of  all 
gases  of  different  densities  which  have  no  chemical  action 
on  each  other. 

Thus  is  carbonic  acid  equally  diffused  through  the 
whole  atmosphere.  There  is  enough  constantly  present 
in  all  parts  of  it  to  form  a  stratum  or  bed,  thirteen  feet 
thick,  over  the  entire  earth,  should  it  descend  and  occupy 
that  position.  It  is  not  necessary  for  the  mind  to  revert 
to  fire,  as  an  agency  more  potent  than  others,  for  the  de- 
struction of  the  race.  The  terrible  nature  of  such  a  layer 
of  heavy  irrespirable  gas  was  most  forcibly  illustrated  to 
the  mind  of  the  author  by  an  examination  of  the  great 
vats  filled  with  it  to  the  brim  in  the  immense  brewery 
establishment  of  Messrs.  Barclay  &  Co.,  in  London.  A 
plank  was  displaced  by  the  attendant,  and  it  was  allowed 
to  flow  over  the  side,  like  water  over  a  fall ;  and  a  single 
inspiration  produced  vertigo,  and  other  unpleasant  con- 
sequences. At  the  celebrated  Grotta  del  Cane^  near 
Naples,  a  dog  is  often  thrown  into  a  cave  filled  with 
the  gas.  After  a  few  painful  respirations  the  poor  animal 
is  apparently  devoid  of  life,  but  subsequently  recovers, 
upon  being  dragged  to  the  pure  air  without.  The  exper- 
iment is  a  cruel  one: 

Whilst  the  carbonic  acid,  resulting  from  the  chemical 
changes  of  the  coal  and  wood  of  our  parlor  fires,  is  so 
fatal  to  man,  it  is  absolutely  indispensable  to  the  existence 
of  vegetable  life ;  and  if  it  were  withdrawn  from  the 
atmosphere  by  being  absorbed  by  water,  or  in  any  other 


7  CHEMISTRY    OF   THE    DWELLING. 

unusual  way,  the  latter  must  cease  from  the  earth  alto- 
gether, and  with  it  all  animal  life.  Plants  depend  in  a 
great  measure  for  their  sustenance  upon  the  atmosphere  ; 
and  the  carbon  of  the  wood  and  coal  which  we  have 
watched  through  the  changes  attendant  upon  combus- 
tion, and  which  resulted  in  the  production  of  a  poison,  is 
obtained  by  the  plants  from  the  air  by  decomposing  the 
same  deleterious  body. 

Paradoxical  as  it  may  seem,  it  is  quite  evident  that  we 
are  dependent  for  life  upon  the  very  poison  which  is  so 
pregnant  with  death.  The  production  of  carbonic  acid 
from  the  various  sources  upon  our  planet,  is  so  marvel- 
lously balanced  by  the  demand  for  the  same  for  plant 
aliment,  that  there  is  no  perceptible  change  in  amount  in 
the  air  from  year  to  year,  there  being  uniformly  about  one 
two-thousandth  part  by  measure  present. 

It  is  evident,  from  the  foregoing  facts,  that  while  the 
products  of  fire  may  be  safely  discharged  into  the  air,  it 
would  be 'productive  of  the  most  fatal  results  to  allow  them 
to  escape  into  the  rooms  of  our  dwellings,  to  be  breathed 
into  the  organs  of  respiration.  The  ingenuity  of  man 
has  devised  an  arrangement  of  flues  which  subserve  the 
double  purpose  of  conveying  away  the  noxious  gases  and 
creating  an  upward  current  of  air,  which,  passing  through 
the  ignited  .materials,  draw  oxygen  towards  them,  and 
increase  the  intensity  of  the  flame. 

Simple  as  is  the  contrivance  of  a  chimney,  it  is  sin- 
gular they  should  be  a  modern  invention.  There  is  no 
record  of  any  chimney  being  used  in  dwellings  prior  to 
the  twelfth  century,  and  even  as  late  as  the  time  of  Queen 
Elizabeth  they  were  quite  uncommon  in  England.  It  is 


CHEMISTRY    OP   THE    DWELLING.  79 

stated  that  Good  Queen  Bess  herself  resided  in  a  room 
unprovided  with  the  luxury  of  a  chimney.  They  were 
undoubtedly  in  use  in  Venice  in  the  middle  of  the  thir- 
teenth century,  and  in  Padua,  but  not  in  Rome  ;  for  when, 
in  1368,  Cararo,  lord  of  the  first-named  city,  visited  Rome, 
he  found  no  chimneys  in  the  inn  where  he  lodged,  and  his 
host  kindled  a  fire  in  a  hole  in  the  middle  of  the  floor  for 
his  comfort,  or  rather  discomfort.  The  buried  cities  of 
Italy  afford  no  evidence  that  chimneys  were  used  by  the 
ancient  Romans,  as  no  contrivance  has  yet  been  discov- 
ered in  either  Pompeii  or  Herculaneum  designed  to  carry 
away  the  products  of  combustion.  Before  the  construc- 
tion of  chimneys,  the  smoke  was  allowed  to  escape 
through  an  orifice  in  the  side  or  top  of  the  room.  And 
in  the  imperfectly  constructed  dwellings  of  those  times, 
there  were  plenty  of  vents  for  the  ingress  of  air,  so  that 
smoke  and  gases  were  diluted,  and  rendered  compara- 
tively innocuous. 

We  may  almost  presume  that  smoke  was  a  luxury 
in  those  early  days ;  the  people  certainly  regarded  a 
smoke-impregnated  atmosphere  as  a  healthful  one.  Old 
Hollingshed,  an  Englishman,  who  wrote  several  cen- 
turies since,  thus  complains  of  the  innovation  of  chim- 
neys :  — 

"  Now  we  have  many  chimnies,  yet  our  tenderlings  do 
complain  of  rheums  and  catarrh,  and  poses.  Once  we 
had  nought  but  a  rere-dose  [a  fireplace],  and  our  heads 
did  never  ake,  for  the  smoke  of  those  days  was  a  good 
hardening  for  the  house,  and  a  far  better  medicine  to  keep 
the  good  man  and  his  family  from  the  quack  or  pose,  with 
which  then  very  few  were  acquainted.  There  are  old 


So  CHEMISTRY    OF    THE    DWELLING. 

men  yet  dwelling  in  the  village  where  I  remain,  who 
have  noted  how  the  multitude  of  chimneys  do  increase, 
whereas  in  their  young  days,  there  were  not  above  two  or 
three,  if  so  many,  in  some  uplandish  towns  of  the  realm. 
And  peradventure  in  the  manor  places  of  some  great 
lordes,  but  each  one  made  his  fire,  against  a  rere-dose,  in 
the  hall  where  he  dined  and  dressed  his  meat. 

"  But  when  our  houses  were  built  of  willow,  then  we 
had  oaken  men ;  but  now  our  houses  are  built  of  oak, 
our  men  are  not  only  become  willow,  but  a  great  many 
altogether  men  of  straw,  which  is  a  sore  alteration." 

The  quaint,  humorous  old  writer  would  be  called  a 
"  croaker  "  in  these  days.  He  was  evidently  one  of  those 
who  believed  in  the  rapid  deterioration  of  the  race,  and 
was  disposed  to  charge  it  to  the  effeminacy  of  the  times, 
by  which  many  were  led  to  refuse  to  breathe  an  atmosphere 
saturated  with  smoke  and  cinders,  —  a  philosophy  worthy 
of  the  fourteenth  century.  Whilst  it  was  possible  to 
dispense  with  chimneys,  so  long  as  wood  alone  formed 
the  only  combustible  material,  the  introduction  of  coal  at 
once  rendered  them  indispensable.  The  large  quantity 
of  volatile  sulphuretted  gases  which  are  formed  by  the 
heat,  and  which  pass  off  from  soft  coals,  together  with 
the  carbonic  acid  gas  proceeding  from  all  varieties,  would 
render  rooms  positively  uninhabitable  were  no  chimneys 
in  use.  The  visible  smoke  proceeding  from  burning 
wood,  composed  as  it  is  mostly  of  fine  cinders  and  un- 
changed particles  of  the  wood,  is  not  poisonous,  but  in  a 
very  considerable  degree  irritating  to  the  mucous  mem- 
brane of  the  air-passages  of  the  mouth  and  nose,  and  also 
to  the  eyes. 


CHEMISTRY    OF    THE    DWELLING.  8 1 

Hence  those  living  in  smoky  houses  have  the  impres- 
sion that  they  are  troubled  with  continued  catarrh  or 
colds,  the  irritability  produced  by  smoke  resembling  so 
closely  that  resulting  from  this  affection.  Notwithstand- 
ing the  statements  of  Hollingshed,  our  experience  leads 
us  to  believe  that  the  lungs  are  rendered  more  sensitive  to 
atmospheric  changes  by  the  frequent  inhalation  of  smoke  ; 
and  those  compelled  to  live  in  a  smoky  atmosphere  are 
more  troubled  with  "rheums  and  catarrh,  and  poses" 
than  those  who  do  not. 

One  thing  is  certain  —  no  annoyance  is  regarded  as 
more  severe  than  a  smoky  house  ;  and  if  the  ancient  phi- 
losophy of  the  "hardening"  process  was  correct,  few 
would  submit  to  it  for  the  benefits  conferred.  How  to 
make  a  chimney  draw  well  is  a  question  of  the  first  im- 
portance with  thousands,  and  one  to  which  the  sagacious 
Franklin  early  directed  his  attention.  He  was  regarded 
in  England  at  one  time  as  the  most  accomplished  "  smoke 
doctor  "  living,  and  his  advice  was  sought  upon  the  sub- 
ject of  draught  in  chimneys  with  great  frequency. 

A  few  simple  principles  are  worth  remembering  re- 
specting the  cause  of  draught  and  methods  of  increasing 
it.  If  a  chimney  is  constructed  of  any  height  and  dimen- 
sions, it  is  of  course  filled  with  air.  And  if  the  column 
of  air  within  it  weighs  as  much  as  a  column  of  equal 
height  surrounding  it  without,  it  will  have  no  draught. 
Two  things  operate  to  change  the  relation  of  the  columns, 
and  create  an  ascensional  current  within  the  chimney. 
One  is  elevation  or  height ;  the  other,  warming  the  air  by 
fire,  by  "'hich  it  becomes  rarefied,  and  its  weight  dimin- 
ished. The  taller  the  chimney,  or  the  hotter  the  fire,  the 
6 


82  CHEMISTRY    OF   THE    DWELLING. 

more  rapid  will  be  the  draught.  It  must  be  constructed 
vertically,  as  much  length  horizontally,  by  cooling  the  air 
before  it  gets  into  the  effective  part  of  the  flue,  will  be 
sure  to  spoil  the  draught. 

If  a  grate  or  fireplace  is  troublesome  by  reason  of  in- 
competency  to  convey  away  smoke,  it  may  be  owing  to 
too  great  an  aperture  above  the  fire,  so  that  a  large  vol- 
ume of  cold  air  enters  the  flue  without  passing  through  it, 
and  thus  is  constantly  cooled.  A  stove  connecting  with 
it  would  work  satisfactorily,  because  the  air  would  be 
compelled  to  pass  through  the  fire,  and  thus  keep  the 
chimney  current  warm  and  active.  A  sliding  valve,  so 
arranged  as  to  increase  or  diminish  this  orifice  above  the 
fire,  is  often  a  complete  remedy. 

Chimneys  upon  the  north  part  of  a  building  do  not 
uniformly  work  as  well  as  others,  because  of  the  refriger- 
ating influences  of  the  locality.  A  chimney  thus  situated 
may  be  made  successful  by  constructing  it  double,  or 
making  an  air  chamber  around  it  to  preserve  warmth. 
Blocks  of  buildings  are  much  freer  from  smoke  annoy- 
ances, because  of  the  multiplicity  of  flues,  which  diffuse 
a  constant  warmth  through  the  walls  in  which  they  are 
constructed. 

There  must  be  a  sufficient  supply  of  air  flowing  into 
the  parlor  to  maintain  vigorous  combustion,  else  there 
will  be  defective  draught.  If  there  is  a  want  of  air,  the 
current  in  the  chimney  will  be  reversed,  and  will  flow 
downward  instead  of  upward.  Tightly  fitting  double 
windows,  with  doors  listed,  and  weather  strips  at  the 
bottom,  —  how  can  rooms  thus  situated  receive  a  propel 
supply  of  air?  Not  only  will  the  fire  upon  the  hearth 


CHEMISTRY    OF    THE    DWELLING.  83 

go  out,  but  the  unseen  fires  within  the  bosoms  of  the 
occupants  of  the  parlor  will  lose  their  glow,  and  expire. 
One  great  source  of  smoky  chimneys  in  city  and  country 
is  the  contiguity  of  high  buildings  or  hills  by  which  their 
tops  are  commanded.  The  smoke  in  such  cases  is  beaten 
down  by  the  rush  of  wind  over  them,  like  water  over  a 
fall.  In  such  instances,  one  of  two  things  must  be  done 
—  the  flue  must  be  raised  higher  than  the  eminence, 
or  resort  must  be  had  to  somebody's  patent  cowl  or  re- 
volving bonnet,  a  contrivance  in  such  general  use  in  cities 
that  the  lines  of  flues,  viewed  from  an  elevated  point,  look 
like  regiments  of  grim  warriors,  with  their  heads  dressed 
in  ugly,  fantastic  gear,  nodding  and  twirling  in  the  wind. 
An  immense  amount  of  human  contrivance  has  been  ex- 
pended in  alterations  and  modifications  of  these  appen- 
dages, as  the  records  of  our  Patent  Office  clearly  prove. 
And,  after  all,  the  whole  matter  is  comprehended  in  the 
simple  attachment  to  the  flue  of  a  rotating  bonnet,  so  that, 
in  whatever  direction  the  wind  blows,  its  mouth  may  be 
averted  from  it.  There  are  chimneys  which  set  all  inge- 
nuity at  defiance,  and  smoke  on  and  smoke  ever,  although 
the  money  expended  upon  them  in  attempts  to  remedy 
the  evil  may  almost  exceed  the  cost  of  the  building  of 
which  they  form  an  ungracious  part. 

Dr.  Franklin,  when  in  London,  was  himself  thwarted 
in  attempts  to  cure  one  of  these  obstinate  flues.  Aftei 
exhausting  his  practised  philosophy  upon  it,  his  friend, 
the  owner  of  the  dwelling,  discovered  it  filled  with  birds' 
nests,  upon  the  removal  of  which  the  evil  was  instantly 
abated. 

Smoke,  as  we  have  already  stated,  is  nothing  but  fuel 


84  CHEMISTRY    OF   THE    DWELLING. 

in  a  minutely  subdivided  state,  and  therefore  it  should  be 
burned  instead  of  being  allowed  to  make  its  exit  from  the 
fire  unconsumed.  Numerous  devices  have  been  urged 
upon  the  public  for  the  accomplishment  of  this  object, 
but  they  are  all  defective  in  their  practical  workings.  In 
large  manufacturing  establishments  in  England  the  burn- 
ing of  the  smoke  is  common ;  and  it  would  indeed  be  a 
desideratum  if  this  result  could  be  extended  to  the  fires  of 
private  dwellings,  as,  in  addition  to  the  removal  of  a  nui- 
sance, there  would  be  a  considerable  saving  of  fuel  in  the 
process.  The  inventive  faculty  can  hardly  be  employed 
upon  a  more  worthy  or  philanthropic  object. 


CHEMISTRY  OF  A  KERNEL  OF  CORN. 


IN  considering  the  curious  and  interesting  chemical 
nature  of  "  corn,"  we  shall  use  the  term  as  applied  to 
the  wheat  berry,  as  well  as  to  the  seeds  of  the  maize 
plant.  Among  the  ancients  wheat  was  always  designated 
as  corn;  and  when  we  read  of  St.  Paul's  famous  voyage 
in  a  "  corn  ship,"  we  are  to  understand  that  the  vessel 
was  laden  with  Egyptian  wheat.  It  is  quite  certain  that 
neither  the  great  apostle,  nor  the  old  Roman  navigators, 
who  he]d  him  a  prisoner,  ever  saw  a  kernel  of  our  Indian 
corn,  —  the  maize  plant  being  indigenous  to  the  American 
continent. 

The  two  grains  are  chemically  constituted  very  much 
alike,  and  what  may  be  said  of  one  applies  with  almost 
equal  correctness  to  the  other.  Both  are  made  up  of 
starch,  dextrine,  gum,  sugar,  gluten,  albumen,  phosphates 
of  lime,  magnesia,  potassa,  with  silica  and  iron.  Wheat 
contains  about  double  the  amount  of  lime  and  iron,  con- 
siderable more  phosphoric  acid,  but  less  magnesia  and 
soda.  Maize  seeds  are  rich  in  a  peculiar  oil,  which  is 
nourishing,  and  highly  conducive  to  the  formation  of 
adipose  or  fatty  matter ;  hence  the  high  utility  of  our 
corn  in  fattening  animals. 


86  CHEMISTRY    OF   A    KERNEL    OF   CORN. 

What  a  remarkable  combination  of  chemical  substances 
are  stored  up  in  a  kernel  of  corn !  It  may  almost  be  said 
to  be  an  apothecary  shop  in  miniature  ;  and  the  order  and 
arrangement  of  the  mineral  elements  and  vegetable  com- 
pounds, needed  to  render  the  comparison  more  apt,  are 
not  wanting.  For  some  reason,  Nature  places  the  most 
valuable  substances  nearest  the  air  and  sunlight,  while 
the  little  cells  of  the  interior  are  filled  full  of  that  material 
used  to  keep  erect  and  tidy  our  collars  or  neckbands  — 
starch.  With  a  moistened  cloth  we  can  rub  off  from  the 
kernel  about  three  and  a  half  per  cent,  of  woody  or  strawy 
material,  of  not  much  nutritive  value,  and  then  we  come 
to  a  coating  which  holds  nearly  all  the  iron,  potash,  soda, 
lime,  phosphoric  acid,  and  the  rich  nitrogenous  ingredients. 
This  wrapper  is  the  store-house,  upon  whose  shelves  are 
deposited  the  mineral  and  vegetable  wealth  of  the  berry. 
From  whence  come  these  chemical  agents?  By  what 
superlative  cunning  were  they  grouped  within  tjie  em- 
brace of  this  covering? 

They  come  of  course  from  the  soil,  and,  by  the  myste- 
rious and  silent  power  of  vital  force,  they  have  been  raised 
atom  by  atom  from  their  low  estate,  and  fitted  to  perform 
the  high  offices  of  nutrition  in  the  animal  organism.  And 
should  we  not  appropriate  them  to  our  use,  as  the  most 
carefully  adjusted  of  all  materials  designed  for  human 
aliment?  Certainly  we  should.  And  do  we?  Unfortu- 
nately we  cannot  render  an  affirmative  answer  to  the  in- 
terrogatory. The  sharp  teeth  of  our  burr  mills  drive 
ruthlessly  through  the  rich  wrapper  of  the  kernel,  and 
then  the  torn  fragments  pass  to  the  bolt,  and  from  that 
to  the  bat  i  or  stable ;  the  animals  obtain  the  nutritious 


CHEMISTRY  OF  A  KERNEL  OF  CORN.        87 

gluten  ;  the  starch,  in  the  form  of  fine  flour,  is  set  aside 
for  household  uses.  But  it  is  not  designed  to  enlarge 
upon  this  point.  Let  us  look  at  the  chemical  office  these 
substances  found  in  the  kernel  of  corn  subserve  in  the 
animal  economy. 

Starch  is  the  wood  or  coal,  which,  under  the  influence 
of  oxygen,  is  to  be  consumed  or  burned  to  maintain  ani- 
mal warmth.  It  passes  in  as  pure  fuel ;  it  is  oxidized, 
and  the  ashes  rejected  through  the  respiratory  organs. 
The  warmth  imparted  by  this  combustion  is  necessary 
to  the  proper  fulfilment  of  the  functions  of  the  body. 
Of  these  functions,  those  of  digestion  and  assimilation 
are  the  most  important.  The  digestive  apparatus  re- 
ceives the  gluten  and  the  starch  of  the  grain:  the  latter 
is  pushed  forward  to  be  burned ;  the  former  enters  the 
circulation,  and  out  of  its  contained  iron,  potash,  soda, 
magnesia,  lime,  nitrogen,  &c.,  are  manufactured  all  the 
important  tissues  and  organs  of  the  body.  All  of  the  iron 
is  retained  in  the  blood,  and  much  of  the  soda  and  phos- 
phoric acid  ;  the  lime  goes  to  the  bones,  and  the  magnesia 
abruptly  leaves  the  body,  as  it  seems  to  be  very  plainly 
told  that  it  is  not  wanted.  Such,  in  brief,  are  the  uses 
which  the  organic  and  inorganic  constituents  of  a  kernel 
of  corn  subserve  in  the  chemistry  of  animal  life. 

The  changes  which  they  are  made  to  undergo  in  the 
laboratory  are  almost  equally  interesting  and  important. 
Fecula,  or  starch,  is  a  body  of  great  interest,  and  is  not 
found  alone  in  corn.  There  is  scarcely  a  plant,  or  part 
of  a  plant,  which  does  not  yield  more  or  less  of  this 
substance.  What  a  curious  vegetable  is  the  potato ! 
Swollen  or  puffed  out  by  the  enormous  distention  of  the 


88        CHEMISTRY  OF  A  KERNEL  OF  CORN. 

cellular  tissue  in  which  the  starch  is  contained,  it  seems 
almost  ugly  in  its  deformity.  It  is  little  less  than  a  mass 
of  pure  starch. 

If  we  separate  the  starch  from  the  gluten  in  corn,  and 
boil  it  a  few  minutes  with  weak  sulphuric  acid,  it  under- 
goes a  rejnarkable  change,  and  becomes  as  fluid  an-l 
limpid  as  water ;  and  if  we  withdraw  the  acid,  and 
evaporate  to  dryness,  we  have  a  new  body,  a  kind  of 
gum  called  "  dextrine."  But  if  we  do  not  interrupt  the 
boiling  when  it  becomes  thin  and  clear,  but  continue  it 
for  several  hours,  and  then  withdraw  the  acid  by  chem- 
ical means,  we  have  remaining  a  sirupy  liquid,  very 
sweet  to  the  taste,  which  will,  if  allowed  to  evaporate, 
solidify  to  a  mass  of  grape  sugar.  This  is  the  method 
of  changing  corn  into  sirup  and  sugar,  about  which  so 
much  has  recently  been  said.  It  is  a  process  long  un- 
derstood, and  practically  of  little  value.  What  is  most 
extraordinary  in  this  process  is  the  fact  that  the  acid 
undergoes  no  diminution  or  change.  It  is  all  with- 
drawn in  its  original  amount  after  the  experiment ;  noth- 
ing is  absorbed  from  the  air,  and  no  other  substance  but 
grape  sugar  generated.  The  play  of  chemical  affinities 
lies  between  the  amidine  and  the  elements  of  water,  grape 
sugar  containing  more  oxygen  and  hydrogen,  compared 
with  the  quantity  of  carbon,  than  the  starch. 

Nothing  can  be  more  striking  than  these  changes. 
From  the  kernel  of  corn  we  obtain  starch ;  this  we 
change  easily  into  gum,  and,  by  the  aid  of  one  of  the 
most  powerful  and  destructive  acids,  transform  it  into 
sirup  and  sugar.  A  pound  of  corn  stirch  may  thus  be 
made  over  into  a  little  more  than  a  pound  of  sugar  of 


CHEMISTRY   OF   A    KERTvtL   OF   CORN.  89 

grapes.  But  this  result  can  be  accomplished  in  another 
way.  Let  us  moisten  the  corn,  place  it  in  a  warm  room, 
and  allow  it  to  germinate,  just  as  do  vegetables  in  a  warm 
cellar.  If  in  this  condition  it  is  dried,  ground,  and  in- 
fused in  water,  a  sweet  liquid  will  be  obtained,  proving 
the  presence  of  sugar.  The  change  is  produced,  in  this 
experiment,  by  the  presence  of  diastase,  a  substance  sup- 
posed to  exist  in  malt  or  germinated  grain,  but  which  is 
imperfectly  understood.  The  quantity  of  diastase  neces- 
sary to  effect  this  curious  metamorphosis  in  corn  starch  is 
very  small.  We  are  now  ready  to  consider  another  most 
extraordinary  change  which  corn  is  capable  of  undergo- 
ing—  that  of  being  transformed  into  'whiskey  or  alcohol. 

If  we  take  the  sweet  liquid  obtained  by  the  infusion  of 
malted  corn,  and  subject  it  to  a  temperature  of  60°  or  70° 
F.,  it  soon  becomes  turbid  and  muddy,  bubbles  of  gas  are 
seen  to  rise  from  all  parts  of  the  liquid,  the  temperature 
rises,  and  there  are  signs  of  intense  chemical  action  going 
on  in  it.  After  a  while  it  slackens,  and  soon  stops  alto- 
gether. Examination  shows  that  it  has  now  completely 
lost  its  sweet  taste,  and  acquired  another  quite  distinct. 
An  intoxicating  liquid  is  formed,  and  if  we  place  it  in 
a  still,  we  obtain  a  colorless,  inflammable  liquid,  easily 
recognized  as  alcohol.  By  a  peculiar  arrangement  of  the 
condensing  apparatus  of  the  still,  a  portion  of  the  grain 
oils  and  a  large  amount  of  water  are  allowed  to  go  over 
with  the  alcohol ;  and  this  constitutes  whiskey.  This  is 
an  example  of  the  change  called  "  vinous  fermentation." 
The  influence  of  a  ferment  or  decomposing  azotized 
body  upon  sugar  is  strange,  and  quite  incomprehensible. 
Through  its  agency,  we  may  cause  the  highly  organized 


90  CHEMISTRY    OF   A    KERNEL   OF   CORN. 

kernel  of  corn  to  take  another  step  downward  towards  a 
dead,  inorganic  condition.  We  can  transform  the  alcohol 
over  into  acetic  acid  or  vinegar,  or  the  sugar  may  be 
formed  into  one  of  the  most  curious  organic  acids  —  the 
lactic  ;  or,  still  further,  it  is  capable  of  being  changed  into 
manna,  a  substance  supposed  to  resemble  that  upon  which 
the  Israelites  subsisted  in  the  wilderness. 

As  in  these  processes  we  follow  the  kernel  of  corn 
through  the  various  changes,  first  into  gum,  then  into 
sugar,  then  alcohol,  then  vinegar,  and  ultimately  into 
carbonic  acid  and  water,  we  obtain  an  imperfect  idea 
of  the  marvels  of  vital  chemistry.  The  mysteries  of  these 
reactions  have  been  carefully  studied,  and  in  a  measure 
unravelled  ;  but  the  necessary  brief  limits  of  this  treatise 
will  hardly  allow  of  their  consideration.  The  chemistry 
of  a  kernel  of  corn  is  a  comprehensive  topic,  and  to  be 
considered  even  in  its  outlines  would  supply  material  suf- 
ficient for  a  volume.  The  aim  has  been  to  group  together 
a  few  of  the  most  interesting  points,  and  thus  awaken  a 
desire  fo:  a  more  complete  and  satisfactory  investigation. 


91 


OBSCURE  SOURCES  OF  DISEASE. 


THERE  are  many  instances  of  disease  brought  to 
notice  which  are  exceedingly  perplexing  in  their 
character,  and  the  sources  of  which  are  very  imperfectly 
understood.  They  belong  to  a  class  outside  of,  and  dis- 
tinct from,  the  usual  forms  resulting  from  constitutional 
idiosyncrasies,  or  accidental  causes,  within  the  knowledge 
of  the  patient  or  medical  attendant.  The  obscurity  of 
their  origin  and  persistence  under  medical  treatment 
render  them  peculiarly  trying  to  the  patience  and  skill 
of  those  who  have  them  in  charge ;  and  after  the  employ- 
ment of  the  usual  remedies  without  effect,  the  patients  are 
sent  into  the  country  or  to  the  sea-shore,  as  the  case  may 
be,  with  the  expectation  that  a  change  of  air  or  residence 
may  prove  beneficial. 

We  cannot,  in  a  majority  of  cases,  regard  these  affec- 
tions as  altogether  imaginary,  or  as  resulting  from  some 
casual  derangement  of  the  nervous  system :  they  are  in- 
stances of  true  disease,  and  should  be  studied  with  the 
view  of  bringing  to  light  the  hidden  source  from  whence 
they  originate.  I  am  led  to  believe  that  a  considerable 
number  arise  from  some  disturbance  in  the  sanitary  con- 
ditions of  dwellings  or  their  surroundings,  and  that,  how- 


92  OBSCURE    SOURCES   OF   DISEASE. 

ever  improbable  this  may  seem  from  a  superficia.  or  even 
careful  examination  of  suspected  premises,  a  still  more 
thorough  and  extended  search  will  often  result  in  the  dis- 
covery of  some  agent  or  agents  capable  of  producing 
disease. 

The  chemical  and  physical  condition  of  water  used  for 
culinary  purposes  has  much  to  do  with  health,  and  is 
perhaps  the  oftenest  overlooked  by  the  physician  in  search- 
ing for  the  cause  of  sickness.  We  must  not  suppose  that 
water  is  only  hurtful  when  impregnated  with  the  salts  of 
lead  or  other  metals ;  there  are  different  sources  of  con- 
tamination, which  produce  the  most  serious  disturbance 
upon  the  system.  Some  of  these  are  very  obscure  and 
difficult  of  detection.  The  senses  of  taste  and  smell  are 
not  to  be  relied  upon  in  examinations,  as  it  often  happens 
that  water  entirely  unfit  for  use  is  devoid  of  all  physical 
appearances  calculated  to  awaken  suspicion.  It  is  clear, 
inodorous,  palatable,  and  there  is  no  apparent  source 
from  whence  impurity  may  arise. 

A  few  instances  which  have  come  under  my  observa- 
tion may  serve  to  illustrate  the  view  presented,  and  as 
suggestions  to  those  who  are  in  doubt  as  regards  the 
cause  of  any  unusual  illness. 

I  was  recently  consulted,  by  a  gentleman  residing  in 
Roxbury,  respecting  the  water  used  in  his  family.  It 
was  taken  into  the  dwelling,  through  tin  pipe,  from  a  well 
in  the  immediate  vicinity,  and  appeared  to  be  perfectly 
pure  and  healthful.  Analysis  disclosed  no  salts  of  lead 
or  copper,  as  indeed  none  could  be  expected,  from  the 
unusual  precautions  taken  to  prevent  contact  of  the  water 
with  these  metals.  Abundant  evidence  was,  however, 


OBSCURE    SOURCES    OF   DISEASE.  93 

afforded  that,  through  some  avenue,  organic  matters  in 
unusual  quantities  were  finding  access  to  the  water.  Care- 
ful examination  of  the  premises  disclosed  the  fact  that  an 
outhouse  on  the  grounds  of  a  neighbor  was  so  situated  as 
to  act  as  a  receptacle  for  house  drainings,  and  from 
thence,  by  subterranean  passages,  the  liquids  flowed  into 
the  well.  Some  cases  of  illness,  of  long  standing  in  the 
family,  disappeared  upon  abandoning  the  use  of  the 
water. 

A  specimen  of  water  was  brought  to  me,  for  chemical 
examination,  by  a  gentleman  of  Charlestown,  who  stated 
that  his  wife  was  afflicted  with  protracted  illness  of  a 
somewhat  unusual  character.  It  was  found  to  be  largely 
impregnated  with  potash  and  the  salts  resulting  from  the 
decomposition  of  animal  and  vegetable  debris,  and  the 
opinion  expressed  that  some  connection  existed  between 
the  well  and  the  waste  fluids  of  the  dwelling.  This 
seemed  improbable,  as  all  these  were  securely  carried 
away  in  a  brick  cemented  drain,  and  in  a  direction  oppo- 
site the  water  supply.  The  use  of  the  spade,  however, 
revealed  a  break  in  the  drain  at  a  point  favorable  for  an 
inflowing  into  the  well,  and  hence  the  source  of  the  con- 
tamination. Rapid  convalescence  followed  on  the  part 
of  the  sick  wife  upon  obtaining  water  from  another 
source. 

Analysis  was  recently  made  of  water  from  a  well  in 
Middlesex  County,  which  disclosed  conditions  quite  similar 
to  these.  The  owner  was  certain  that  no  impurity  could 
arise  from  sources  suggested ;  but  rigid  and  persistent 
investigation  disclosed  the  fact,  that  the  servant  girl  had 
long  been  in  the  habit  of  emptying  the  "  slops "  into  a 


94  OBSCURE    SOURCES    OF    DISEASE. 

cavity  by  the  kitchen  door  (formed  by  the  displacement 
of  several  bricks  in  the  pavement),  where  they  were 
readily  absorbed.  Although  the  well  was  quite  remote, 
the  intervening  space  was  filled  with  coarse  sand  and 
rubble  stones,  and  hence  the  unclean  liquids  found  an 
easy  passage  to  the  water.  This  proved  to  be  the  cause 
of  illness  in  the  family. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  present  other  instances  of  a  similar 
character  on  record.  These  serve  to  bring  to  view  some 
of  the  sources  of  impurities  in  water  used  for  household 
purposes,  and  the  obscure  cause  of  serious  diseases.  The 
(ocation  of  wells  connected  with  dwellings  is  a  matter 
which  should  receive  careful  attention. 

It  is  well  known  that  in  the  gradual  decomposition  of 
animal  and  vegetable  substances,  at  or  near  the  surface 
of  the  earth,  under  certain  conditions,  nitrogenous  com- 
pounds are  developed.  The  nitre  earths  found  beneath 
old  buildings  result  from  these  changes,  although  it  is 
quite  difficult  to  understand  the  precise  nature  of  the 
chemical  transformations  which  produce  them.  In  the 
waters  of  a  large  number  of  wells  in  towns  and  cities,  and 
also  in  the  country,  the  nitrates  are  found  at  some  seasons 
in  considerable  quantities.  The  salts  form  at  the  surface 
in  warm  weather,  and,  being  quite  soluble,  are  carried 
with  the  percolating  rain  water  into  the  well.  In  cities 
and  large  towns,  where  excrementitious  matters  accumu- 
late rapidly  around  dwellings  compacted  together,  it  is 
difficult  to  locate  wells  remote  from  danger ;  and  hence  it 
might  seem  that  suspicion  should  be  confined  to  these 
localities.  This,  however,  is  not  a  safe  conclusion.  How 
often  do  we  see,  upon  isolated  farms  in  the  country,  the 


OBSCURE    SOURCES    OF   DISEASE.  9^ 

well  located  within,  or  upon,  the  margin  of  the  barnyard, 
near  huge  manure  heaps,  reeking  with  ammoniacal  and 
other  gases,  the  prolific  sources  of  soluble  salts,  which  find 
access  to  the  water,  and  render  it  unfit  as  a  beverage  for 
man  or  beast.  It  may,  no  doubt,  be  a  convenience  to  the 
farmer  to  have  his  water  supply  so  situated  as  to  meet  the 
wants  of  the  occupants  of  his  barn  and  his  dwelling ;  but 
it  is  full  of  danger. 

Whilst  admitting  that  such  may  be  the  condition  of 
the  water  of  many  wells,  doubts  may  arise,  with  some, 
whether  substances  not  decidedly  poisonous,  and  received 
in  such  quantities,  can,  after  all,  be  productive  of  much 
harm,  or  the  real  source  of  illness.  To  a  large  number 
of  people  they  are  certainly  harmless ;  but  it  must  be 
admitted  that  there  is  a  class — and  one  or  more  are  found 
in  almost  every  family — whose  peculiarly  sensitive  organi- 
zation does  not  admit  of  the  presence  of  any  extraneous 
agent  in  food  or  drink,  or  in  what  they  inhale.  The 
functions  of  life  and  health  are  disturbed  by  the  slightest 
deviation  from  the  usual  or  normal  condition  of  things 
around  them.  It  is  manifestly  of  importance  that  we 
should  recognize  these  peculiarities  in  individuals.  It  is 
unsafe,  in  making  a  diagnosis  of  disease,  or  seeking  for 
causes,  to  overlook  or  forget  them. 

We  are,  indeed,  incapable  of  understanding  how  this 
can  be.  It  seems  incredible  that  the  thousandth  part  of  a 
grain  of  one  of  the  salts  of  lead,  dissolved  in  water  and 
taken  daily,  will  disturb  the  system  of  any  one ;  and  yet 
such  is  the  case.  We  can  see  no  reason  why  a  very  little 
nitrate  of  potassa,  or  soda,  or  lime,  taken  in  the  same 
way,  should  produce  any  ill  effects  ;  still  stranger  is  it  that 


96  OBSCURE    SOURCES    OF    DISEASE. 

the  infinitesimal  amount  of  dust  dislodged  from  painted 
wall-papers,  received  into  the  lungs,  should  make  inroads 
upon  health. 

Several  instances  of  this  latter  result  have  recently 
come  to  my  knowledge.  In  two  families  of  the  highest 
respectability  in  this  city,  illness  of  an  unusual  and  pro- 
tracted character  existed,  and  at  the  suggestion,  of  the 
physician,  portions  of  the  green  wall-paper  of  the  dwell- 
ing were  submitted  to  me  for  analysis.  The  pigments 
were  found  to  consist  mainly  of  arseniate  of  copper,  and 
upon  the  removal  of  the  papers  the  illness  disappeared. 
In  experimenting  with  apparently  the  most  suitable  appa- 
ratus, and  employing  delicate  chemical  tests,  in  rooms  the 
walls  of  which  were  covered  with  these  arsenical  papers, 
no  evidence  of  the  presence  of  the  poison  in  the  atmos- 
phere has  been  afforded ;  and  this  corresponds  with  the 
results  of  all  similar  experiments  made  in  this  country 
and  in  Europe,  so  far  as  my  knowledge  extends.  We 
must  conclude  that  agents  not  recognizable  by  chemical 
tests  are  capable  of  disturbing  vital  processes.  The  evi- 
dence is  very  clear  that  in  instances  of  illness  confined  to 
one  or  two  members  of  a  household,  the  cause  may  be 
due  to  some  accidental  disturbance  with  which  all  are 
equally  brought  in  contact,  but  which  has  the  power  of 
injuriously  influencing  but  a  part.  It  is  also  clear  that 
these  sources  of  disease  are  of  such  a  character  as  easily 
to  escape  detection,  and  therefore  any  facts  or  experience 
which  may  serve  as  guides  to  their  discovery,  are  worthy 
of  consideration. 


97 


LOCAL    DECOMPOSITION    IN    LEAD 
AQUEDUCT    PIPES. 


IN  most  cities  and  towns  supplied  with  aqueduct  water, 
through  leaden  pipes,  a  confident  feeling  prevails  that 
the  general  influence  of  the  water  is  harmless,  and  no  one 
suspecting  any  decompositions  to  result  from  local  causes, 
the  idea  of  lead-poisoning  does  not  enter  the  mind  of  any 
consumer. 

Competent  chemists  are  commissioned  to  make  careful 
and  extended  experiments  to  ascertain  the  effect  of  the 
water  upon  lead,  and  their  reports  generally  assert  the 
the  non-liability  of  contamination.  It  is  just  that  con- 
fidence should  be  reposed  in  the  results  of  their  investiga- 
tions. The  experiments  and  conclusions,  respecting  the 
general  influence  of  the  waters  upon  lead,  are  usually 
accurate  and  reliable. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  waters  of  Cochituate 
Lake,  like  those  of  most  New  England  ponds,  in  their 
freedom  from  chlorides  and  nitrates,  and  generally  hold- 
ing in  solution  sufficient  carbonic  acid  to  change  soluble 
oxides  into  insoluble  carbonates,  are  safe  to  use  aftei 
passing  through  lead  pipe,  under  ordinary  circumstances 
7 


98  LOCAL    DECOMPOSITION    IN 

But  to  form  ..n  opinion  of  their  entire  safety  at  all  points 
of  delivery,  we  must  inquire  if  the  relationship  of  chemi- 
cal forces  may  not  be  so  affected  or  changed  in  one 
locality,  as  to  change  the  character  of  the  water  flowing 
in  that  direction.  We  certainly  ought  to  infer  that  such 
is  the  fact,  when  the  presence  of  lead  is  detected  in  the 
water,  and  cases  of  lead  disease  are  found  following 
its  use. 

Several  years  ago,  the  writer  called  attention  to  the 
instances  and  causes  of  local  decomposition  in  lead  pipes, 
through  a  public  journal,  and  since  that  time  the  addi- 
tional instances  that  have  come  to  his  knowledge  have 
convinced  him  of  the  importance  of  the  subject. 

The  late  Dr.  Treadwell,  of  Salem,  several  years  since, 
suspected  that  he  was  suffering  from  lead  disease,  and 
sent  to  me,  for  analysis,  samples  of  water  supplied  to  his 
dwelling.  The  amount  of  the  metal  present  was  found 
to  be  large  ;  so  large,  that,  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  a 
comparison  of  results,  a  portion  was  sent  to  a  dis- 
tinguished chemical  friend  for  examination.  The  results 
in  no  respects  differed.  The  violence  of  the  symptoms 
in  Dr.  Treadwell's  case  rapidly  abated  upon  abstaining 
from  the  use  of  the  water.  A  specimen  of  this  aque- 
duct wrater,  taken  from  another  locality,  afforded  a  trace 
of  lead,  while  that  from  other  pipes  gave  no  lead  reaction 
with  the  most  delicate  tests. 

Instances  of  the  kind,  that  have  come  under  my  ob- 
servation, and  those  on  record,  are  numerous.  It  is  safe 
to  say  that  there  is  no  time  when  there  are  not  individuals 
in  all  cities  and  towns  suffering  from  lead  disease.  It  is 
marvellous  how  susceptible  some  individuals  are  to  the 


LEAD    AQUEDUCT    PIPES.  99 

influence  of  this  metal  in  the  system.  I  have  been  made 
acquainted  with  a  case  where  two  members  of  a  family 
of  seven  were  made  seriously  ill  from  the  use  of  water 
containing  only,  at  times,  a  mere  trace  of  lead  —  a 
quantity  so  infinitesimally  small  as  not  to  have  the  least 
effect  upon  the  health  of  the  others. 

In  view  of  the  facts,  it  seems  necessary  to  inquire,  What 
produces  this  lead  impregnation  in  certain  houses  or  dis- 
tricts, while  the  general  waters  of  a  supply  remain  un- 
affected? 

In  the  course  of  investigations  several  interesting  facts 
have  been  developed,  tending  to  throw  light  upon  this 
subject.  I  have  noticed  in  the  leaden  pipes  removed 
from  cess-pools,  sinks,  and  wells,  that  the  intensity  of 
corrosive  action  had  been  in  a  great  measure  confined 
to  the  sharpest  bends  and  depressions  in  the  pipe,  and 
in  some  instances  other  portions  remained  intact. 

I  have  in  my  possession  a  section  of  supply-pipe, 
removed  from  the  aqueduct  of  a  neighboring  city,  in  a 
portion  of  which  corrosive  action  had  proceeded  so  far 
as  to  cause  leakage.  The  part  thus  acted  upon  was 
confined  to  an  acute  angle,  and  there  is  evidence  to  show 
that  the  plumber,  in  placing  it  in  position,  bent  it  in  the 
wrong  direction,  thus  creating  the  necessity  for  another 
turn  in  the  opposite.  This  pipe  had  doubtless  been  sub- 
jected to  two  violent  turns,  which  seriously  impaired  the 
homogeneity  of  the  metal.  An  examination  of  lead  pipe 
removed  from  buildings  will  certainly  show  that  where 
there  has  been  any  perceptible  amount  of  decomposition, 
it  has  been  confined  to  the  angles  and  depressions  in  its 
course. 


IOO  LOCAL   DECOMPOSITION   IN 

There  are  three  causes  or  agencies  which  may,  per- 
haps, be  sufficient  to  produce  these  results :  — 

1.  The  disturbance  in  the  crystalline  structure  of  the 
metal   by   bending,    whereby   its    electrical    condition    is 
changed,    and   voltaic    action   promoted,   giving   rise   to 
chemical  decomposition. 

2.  The  presence  of  organic  matter,  such  as  fragments 
of  leaves,  and  impurities  pervading  all  pond  waters,  and 
which  may  be  detained  in  angles  and  depressions  of  the 
pipes.     Their    presence,    undoubtedly,   promotes    oxida- 
tion, and  the  protoxide  of  lead  will  remain  in   solution, 
unless  sufficient  carbonic  acid  is  furnished  to  change  it. 
It  is  easy  to  conceive  of  conditions  where  this  could  not 
be  the  case. 

3.  Corrosions  may  be  produced  in  lead  pipes  by  the 
accidental  presence  of  pieces  of  mortar.     Where  mortar 
is  present,  the  lime  would  assist  in  oxidizing  the  metal, 
and  also  aid  in  the  solution  of  the  oxide.     Considerable 
portions  of  fresh  mortar  are  frequently  deposited  in  lead 
pipes  during  the  erection  of  buildings.     When  the  family 
commence  the  use  of  the  water,  it  holds  the  salts  of  lead 
in  solution,  and  its  presence  may  be  detected  for  months. 
The  process  of  oxidation,  which  is  retarded  or  prevented 
altogether  by  the  presence  of  neutral  salts  in  water,  could 
not   be   materially  interfered  with  under  the    conditions 
considered. 

It  is  obvious,  if  these  observations  and  conclusions  are 
correct,  that  much  care  should  be  exercised  in  placing 
pipes  in  position  in  buildings.  In  those  leading  to  the 
culinary  department,  angles  and  depressions  should  be 
avoided.  Violent  twists  and  turns  should  not  be  per- 


LEAD    AQUEDUCT    PIPES.  IO1 

mitted ;  and  during  the  erection  of  houses,  the  open  ends 
of  protruding  pipes  should  be  carefully  closed. 

Assuming  the  general  fact  that  lead  pipes,  conveying 
the  waters  of  our  New  England  ponds,  become  coated 
and  protected  by  an  insoluble  lead  salt,  the  question 
arises,  How  long  before  this  protection  is  secured?  or, 
How  soon  may  a  family  commence  the  use  of  water 
passing  through  new  pipes,  with  safety  ?  In  view  of  the 
manifest  danger  from  local  disturbances,  the  most  sensi- 
ble reply  would  be,  Never.  A  section  of  new  lead  pipe, 
immersed  in  Cochituate  water  one  hour,  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  65°  Fahr.,  gave  a  decided  lead  reaction  with 
sulphydric  acid.  Removed,  and  placed  in  six  fresh 
portions  of  water,  one  hour  in  each,  the  waters,  when 
tested,  gave  similar  results.  The  experiment  continued 
during  two  weeks.  Varying  the  time  of  immersion  in 
fresh  portions  of  water  from  one  hour  to  ten,  the  lead 
indications  continued,  although  at  last  feeble.  These 
results  are  sufficient  to  show  that  individuals  or  families* 
should  not  commence  the  use  of  water  flowing  through 
new  pipes  until  a  considerable  time  has  elapsed,  and 
much  water  contact  secured. 

It  is  important  that  medical  gentlemen  should  be  made 
fully  aware  of  every  source  from  whence  disease  may 
arise ;  and  if  there  are  symptoms  in  patients  indicating 
lead  affections,  it  would  seem  desirable  that  investigations 
should  be  instituted  to  ascertain  the  facts,  although  there 
may  be  no  apparent  source  through  which  the  salts  of 
lead  could  be  introduced  into  the  system. 


io3 


BREAD    AND    BREAD-MAKING. 


FROM  the  character  of  bread  offered  for  premiums 
at  the  exhibition  of  agricultural  societies  the  con- 
clusion is  reached,  that  very  many  families  have  hardly 
yet  learned  what  good  bread  is,  and  that  there  is  a  wide 
margin  for  improvements  in  the  methods  of  bread-mak- 
ing. No  subject  is  certainly  more  important,  as  it  has  a 
direct  bearing  upon  the  health  and  consequent  happiness 
of  households,  and  it  should  receive  the  attention  which 
it  deserves. 

Besides  the  manipulating  processes,  the  manufacture 
of  good  bread  involves  some  other  considerations  of  no 
secondary  importance.  It  is  useless  to  attempt  its  pro- 
duction with  imperfect  or  bad  materials.  The  flour  or 
meal  must  be  sweet,  and  from  fully  matured  grain. 
During  every  year  the  market  is  crowded  with  flour  of 
a  damaged  character.  Severe  rains  and  long-continued 
moist  weather,  which  prevail  at  the  South  and  West,  are 
unfavorable  for  securing  the  grain  crops,  and  much  of  it 
germinates  in  the  fields  and  barns,  and  is  thereby  ren- 
dered unfit  for  bread-making.  In  the  germinating  pro- 
cess, disastase  is  formed  ;  this,  reacting  upon  the  starch 
of  the  flour  in  the  baking,  transforms  it  into  dextrine  and 


IO4  BREAD    AND    BREAD-MAKING. 

sugar,  and  prevents  the  formation  of  light,  spongy 
bread.  Flour  from  such  grain  will  afford  only  sticky, 
glutinous,  heavy  bread,  no  matter  how  much  care  and 
skill  is  bestowed  in  the  making.  Fungous  growths  also 
appear  in  wheat  injured  by  moisture,  and  the  flour  be- 
comes "  musty."  In  bread  from  such  materials,  beside 
its  repulsive  physical  appearance  and  unpleasant  taste, 
a  chemical  change  has  occurred  which  renders  it  posi- 
tively injurious  as  an  article  of  diet.  The  nutritive 
properties,  the  gluten,  especially,  has  undergone  decom- 
position, and  new  bodies  have  been  formed,  which  are 
not  of  an  alimentary  nature.  Impaired  digestion,  de- 
rangements of  the  bowels,  follow  the  use  of  bread  from 
such  flour.  The  poor,  who  are  unable  to  pay  large 
prices  for  choice,  selected  brands,  suffer  greatly  from 
this  source,  and  much  of  the  bread  they  are  compelled 
to  eat  is  well  calculated  to  weaken  rather  than  sustain 
the  vital  functions. 

During  the  most  favorable  seasons  thousands  of  bush- 
els of  wheat  are  made  into  flour,  which,  owing  to  local 
causes,  delay  in  harvesting,  or  storage  in  large  bodies, 
is  rendered  entirely  unfit  to  be  used  as  food.  A  portion 
of  this  is  employed  in  the  arts ;  but  the  great  bulk  goes 
into  families,  and  feeble  children,  as  well  as  adults, 
are  forced  to  consume  it,  much  to  their  injury.  It 
is  doubtful  if  anything  can  be  done  to  abate  this  evil ; 
the  cupidity  of  men  is  but  little  affected  by  consider- 
ations of  right,  and  the  thirst  for  gain  is  potent  and 
irresistible. 

There  are  several  methods  of  testing  wheat  flour,  which 
are  available  to  purchasers,  although  none  of  them  afford 


BREAD    AND    BREAD-MAKING.  105 

positive  indications.  Good  flour  is  not  sensibly  sweet 
to  the  taste,  but  bad  flour  often  is.  This  is  owing  to  the 
presence  of  glucose,  resulting  from  chemical  changes  in 
the  grain,  by  partial  malting.  Extreme  whiteness  is  a  good 
indication,  as  changed  grain  is  discolored  in  the  process 
of  change.  Good  flour  is  tenacious  and  unctuous  to  the 
touch ;  when  thrown  against  a  wall,  it  should  adhere, 
and  not  fall  readily.  It  does  not  feel  crispy,  and  when 
formed  into  a  ball  in  the  hand,  adheres  together  like 
a  ball  of  snow.  To  the  sense  of  smell  it  is  sweet  and 
pleasant,  and  when  taken  into  the  mouth,  forms  a  glu- 
tinous mass,  free  from  all  disagreeable  taste. 

The  nutritive  quality  of  flour  depends  upon  the  pro- 
portion of  gluten  which  it  contains.  In  the  best  speci- 
mens ten  or  twelve  per  cent,  is  found.  A  barrel  of 
flour  contains  about  twenty  pounds  of  gluten,  and  one 
hundred  and  fifty  of  common  starch.  The  starch  can 
easily  be  washed  out  of  a  small  quantity  of  flour  by 
placing  it  in  a  bag  of  cotton  cloth  and  kneading  it  under 
a  stream  of  water.  The  gluten  remains  upon  the  cloth, 
and  is  a  gray,  viscid,  tenacious  mass,  insoluble  in  water. 
It  is  the  strength-giving  principle  of  the  flour,  and  in  a 
three-pound  loaf  of  bread  there  should  be  at  least  three 
ounces  of  this  substance. 

Bad  bread  is  by  no  means  always  chargeable  to  im- 
perfect materials.  Hundreds  of  families,  who  procure 
and  use  the  most  perfect  flour,  subsist  upon  bread  of  a 
very  inferior  quality.  Some  housekeepers  assert  that 
they  can  have  no  "luck"  in  bread-making;  their  loaves 
are  always  heavy,  or  sour,  or  doughy,  or  burnt,  and  they 
give  up  experimenting  and  become  discouraged.  As 


106  BREAD    AND    BREAD-MAKING. 

with  good  materials  every  one  can  prepare  good  bread, 
there  should  be  no  want  of  success. 

Success  depends  in  a  great  measure  upon  good  judg- 
ment, faithfulness  and  patience  in  working,  and  in  using 
the  right  materials.  It  is  quite  preposterous  to  present 
a  fixed  recipe  and  set  it  up  as  an  infallible  guide  in  this 
department  of  household  labor.  The  method  adopted 
in  my  family,  which  affords  perfect  white  bread,  is  as 
follows :  — 

Sift  five  pounds  of  good  flour  and  put  it  in  an  earthen 
pan  suitable  for  mixing  and  kneading.  Have  ready  a 
ferment,  or  yeast,  prepared  as  follows :  — 

Take  two  potatoes  the  size  of  the.  fist,  boil  them,  mash 
and  mix  with  half  a  pint  of  boiling  water.  A  fresh 
yeast  cake,  of  the  size  common  in  the  market,  is  dis- 
solved in  water,  and  the  two  solutions  mixed  together 
and  put  in  a  warm  place  to  ferment.  As  soon  as  it 
commences  to  rise,  or  ferment,  which  requires  a  longer 
or  shorter  time,  as  the  weather  is  warm  or  cold,  pour 
it  into  the  flour,  and  with  the  addition  of  a  pint  each 
of  milk  and  water,  form  a  dough,  and  knead  for  a  full 
half  hour.  Form  the  dough  at  night,  and  allow  it  to 
stand  until  morning  in  a  moderately  warm  place ;  then 
mould  and  put  in  pans,  and  let  it  remain  until  it  has 
become  well  raised  ;  then  place  in  a  hot  oven  and  bake. 

The  points  needing  attention  in  this  process  are  sev- 
eral. First,  the  flour  must  be  of  the  best  quality ; 
second,  the  potatoes  should  be  sound  and  mealy ;  third, 
the  yeast  cake  is  to  be  freshly  prepared ;  fourth,  the 
ferment  must  be  in  just  the  right  condition ;  fifth,  the 
kneading  should  be  thorough  and  effective ;  sixth,  the 


BREAD    AND    BREAD-MAKING.  lOj 

ra  sing  of  the  dough  must  be  watched,  that  it  does  not 
proceed,  too  far  and  set  up  the  acetic  fermentation,  and 
cause  the  bread  to  sour;  seventh,  after  the  dough  is 
placed  in  pans,  it  should  be  allowed  to  rise,  or  puff  up, 
before  placing  in  the  oven ;  eighth,  the  temperature  of 
the  oven,  and  the  time  consumed  in  baking,  have  much 
to  do  with  the  perfection  of  the  process. 

If  this  method  is  followed  with  the  exercise  of  good 
judgment  and  ordinary  skill,  white  bread  of  the  highest 
perfection  will  be  uniformly  produced. 

Unfermented,  or  "cream  of  tartar"  bread,  is  never 
placed  upon  the  table  in  my  family.  There  are  special 
dietary  or  sanitary  reasons  for  its  exclusion.  All  "  quick- 
made"  bread  is  usually  prepared  in  haste,  and  the  ad- 
justment of  acid  and  alkali  is  apt  to  be  imperfect.  Not 
one  pound  in  a  hundred  of  cream  of  tartar  sold  in  the 
market  is  free  from  adulteration.  In  ten  specimens  pro- 
cured from  as  many  different  dealers,  in  a  town  of  ten 
thousand  inhabitants,  I  ascertained  by  analysis  that  the 
least  percentage  of  adulterating  material  was  twenty-two 
per  cent.,  and  several  were  over  seventy  per  cent.  The 
"  yeast  powders  "  so  common  in  the  market  are  composed 
of  acids  in  association  with  alkaline  carbonates,  usually 
bi-carbonate  of  soda.  If  tartaric  acid,  or  cream  of  tartar, 
is  used  with  the  soda,  there  remains  in  the  bread  after 
baking  a  neutral  salt,  the  tartrate  of  soda,  which  is  dif- 
fused through  the  loaf  and  is  consumed  with  it.  This 
salt  has  aperient  properties  —  in  fact,  is  a  medicine ; 
and  thus,  at  the  daily  meal,  those  who  use  bread  made 
with  "  powders,"  or  with  cream  of  tartar,  are  taking 
food  and  medicine  together. 


108  BREAD    AND    BREAD-MAKING. 

Some  years  ago,  Professor.  Horsford,  of  Cambridge, 
proposed  substituting  phosphoric  acid  for  the  tartaric ; 
and  this  excellent  idea  has  been  put  into  practical  effect 
in  the  production  of  yeast  powders.  In  the  use  of  this 
acid,  phosphate  of  soda  would  remain  in  the  loaf;  and 
as  this  is  made  up  of  the  element  which  we  lose  in 
sifting  out  the  bran  from  the  flour,  it  must  prove  health- 
ful, or  at  least  unobjectionable.  But  bread  prepared  by 
effervescing  powders  is,  at  best,  a  poor  substitute  for 
that  which  results  when  the  dough  is  raised  through  the 
agency  of  vinous  fermentation  —  regular  yeast,  in  some 
of  its  forms,  being  employed.  Effervescents  may  be 
used  in  exigencies,  which  occasionally  occur ;  but  it  is 
hoped  that  the  good  housewives  in  our  country  do  not, 
in  their  bread-making,  habitually  depart  from  the  good 
old  way  of  raising  the  loaf  by  panary  fermentation. 

It  was  a  noticeable  fact  that  seldom  specimens  of 
whole  meal,  wheaten,  or  corn  bread  are  offered  for 
exhibition.  It  is  presumed  that  the  premiums  of  agri- 
cultural societies  are  intended  to  include  these  forms  of 
the  "  staff  of  life,"  and  it  is  a  matter  of  regret  that  none 
are  presented.  There  is  manifestly  a  perversion  of  sen- 
timent, or  fashion,  as  regards  bread  made  from  the  un- 
bolted meal  of  wheat,  which  ought  to  be  corrected. 
Why,  upon  the  tables  of  farmers,  the  white  flour  loaf 
should  usurp  the  place  of  the  darker,  but  sweeter  and 
more  healthful  one  from  the  whole  meal,  is  a  question 
of  no  little  interest  and  importance.  In  the  Eastern 
States,  but  few  soil  cultivators  raise  this  noble  grain  in 
quantities  large  enough  to  meet  family  wants ;  and  it  is 


BREAD    AND    BREAD-MAKING.  109 

probable,  if  the  reverse  of  this  were  true,  the  grist  would 
be  carried  long  distances  to  a  mill  with  a  bolt,  to  separate 
the  fine  flour. 

If  there  is  any  one  form  of  bread  more  delicious  than 
another,  or  more  conducive  to  the  sustentation  of  the 
physical  and  intellectual  powers,  it  is  that  from  unsifted 
wheat  meal ;  and  every  owner  of  land  should  include 
this  grain  among  his  crops,  that  he  may  have  the  bread 
fresh  and  in  its  highest  perfection.  A  generous  dressing 
of  finely  ground  bone  will  put  almost  any  field  in  con- 
dition to  grow  a  profitable  crop ;  and  in  these  days, 
when  flour  of  the  better  sorts  commands  such  enormous 
prices,  there  seems  to  be  no  good  reason  why  farmers 
should  not  resume  the  cultivation  of  wheat  in  all  wheat- 
growing  states. 

Corn  bread  is  also  excellent  and  most  nutritious.  It 
contains  a  large  amount  of  .oil  not  found  in  other  grains, 
which  adds  greatly  to  its  value.  There  is  far  too  little 
of  this  used  in  our  families.  The  old-fashioned  dish  of 
corn  "  pudding  and  milk  "  is  now  nearly  as  obsolete  as 
that  of  "  bean  porridge ; "  and  may  we  not,  with  much 
reason,  attribute  the  physical  degeneracy  of  the  present 
race  to  the  radical  changes  in  the  forms  of  food?  Re- 
garding the  matter  from  a  chemical  and  medical  point 
of  view,  it  certainly  would  be  difficult  to  select  better  or 
more  healthful  forms  of  human  nutriment  —  forms  so  well 
calculated  to  build  up  and  sustain  a  "  sound  mind  in  a 
sound  body,"  as  the  two  named  above,  once  so  popular, 
but  now  banished  from  our  tables.  They  were  easy  of 
digestion  and  assimilation,  and  contained  all  the  chemical 


110  BREAD    AND    BREAD-MAKING. 

substances,  or  organic  and  inorganic  constituents  needed 
to  nourish  the  body  and  mind.  Certainly,  white  flour 
bread,  cake,  and  condiments  are  poor  substitutes  for  the 
sensible  but  plain  dishes  of  our  fathers  and  mothers  a 
half  century  ago. 


Ill 


CHEMISTRY  OF   THE  SUN. 


IT  will  be  quite  natural  for  the  reader,  not  acquainted 
with  the  triumphs  of  all-conquering  Science,  to  ex- 
claim, as  he  casts  his  eye  upon  the  title  of  this  essay, 
"  Chemistry  of  the  Sun !  How  can  we  know  anything 
of  the  chemistry  of  a  body  so  remote?  With  the  enor- 
mous distance  of  ninety-five  millions  of  miles  interven- 
ing between  our  mundane  chemists  and  the  fiery  orb, 
how  can  they  obtain  knowledge  regarding  its  structure, 
or  the  materials  of  which  it  is  composed?"  Incredible 
as  may  seem  the  fact,  they  have  acquired  knowledge 
upon  these  points. 

Chemists  are  certain  that  several  of  the  metals  com- 
mon to  our  earth  exist  upon  the  sun,  or  form  a  part  of 
that  incandescent  covering  from  which  proceed  light 
and  heat.  This  knowledge  rests  upon  experimental 
demonstration.  However  insignificant  is  man,  and  con- 
fined to  a  narrow  belt  upon  this  little  ball  of  earth,  he 
is  proved  capable  of  stretching  his  powers  through  un- 
limited space,  and  estimating  the  chemical  composi- 
tion not  only  of  the  sun,  but  of  the  fixed  stars,  and,  by 
these  sublime  researches,  affording  evidence  that  there 


112  CHEMISTRY    OF   THE    SUN. 

is  entire  unity  of  matter  throughout  the  vast  physical 
universe. 

Let  us  proceed  to  the  examination  and  explanation  of 
the  wonderful  nature  of  that  analytical  method  by  which 
these  results  are  reached.  Of  course  it  must  be  conceded 
that  the  only  channel  through  which  we  can  gain  any 
knowledge  of  the  distant  heavenly  bodies,  is  through  the 
vivifying  radiance  which  they  so  constantly  pour  forth 
into  surrounding  space,  and  which  impinges  upon  our 
planet  after  considerable  time  is  consumed  in  its  rapid 
flight.  It  is  through  the  agency  of  imponderable  light 
that  all  our  chemical  knowledge  of  the  sun  is  derived. 
The  scientific  world  is  indebted  to  Kirchhoff,  Professor 
of  Physics  in  the  University  of  Heidelberg,  for  the  fullest 
and  most  accurate  explorations  in  the  field  of  spectrum 
analysis — a  method  of  demonstration  by  which  light  is 
proved  to  be  a  trusty  messenger  for  bringing  us  tidings 
regarding  the  chemical  nature  of  distant  worlds.  In 
connection  with  Professor  Bunsen,  he  made  a  series  of 
experiments,  which  resulted  in  the  establishment  of  a 
new  method  of  chemical  analysis  of  marvellous  delicacy 
and  accuracy,  based  upon  the  peculiar  effects  of  light 
given  off  by  terrestrial  matter,  when  through  heat  it 
becomes  luminous.  This  method  is  proved  to  be  so 
delicate  as  to  enable  the  analyst  to  detect  with  ease  and 
certainty  so  minute  a  quantity  as  the  TFCT^U-^^TT  Part  °f 
a  grain  of  any  substance. 

It  is  somewhat  difficult  to  convey  a  very  clear  idea  of 
this  method  to  those  not  acquainted  with  optics  or  chem- 
ical science ;  and  in  this  discussion  we  shall  enter  only  so 
far  into  the  matter,  as  to  afford  a  general  view  of  the 


CHEMISTRY    OF   THE    SUN.  113 

philosophy  of  the  process,  and  the  nature  &f  the  ap- 
paratus employed. 

If  we  allow  a  beam  of  sunlight  to  pass  through  a 
round  hole  in  the  shutter  of  a  darkened  room,  and  inter- 
pose a  triangular  piece  of  glass,  called  a  prism,  so  as  to 
cause  the  ray  to  traverse  it  at  a  peculiar  angle,  we  find, 
instead  of  a  white  spot  of  light  upon  the  wall,  a  bright 
band  of  various  colored  lights,  showing  all  the  tints  of 
the  rainbow.  The  white  light  is  split  up  into  various 
constituent  parts,  thus  proving  that  what  we  call  white- 
ness is  composed  of  an  infinite  number  of  differently 
colored  rays.  This  experiment  by  no  means  reveals  all 
the  beauties  of  solar  light,  as  the  colored  lights  overlap 
and  interfere  with  each  other,  and  the  colors  are  con- 
fused. If,  for  the  round  hole,  wre  substitute  a  narrow 
slit  in  the  shutter,  and  allow  the  ray  to  pass  through  the 
prism,  we  shall  notice  that  a  number  of  dark  lines 
appear,  cutting  up  the  colored  portion  of  the  spectrum, 
and  essentially  modifying  its  appearance.  What  is  the 
meaning  of  these  dark  lines?  What  do  they  indicate?  In 
Newton's  time  they  were  thought  to  have  no  meaning. 
Dr.  Wollaston,  in  1802,  counted  them,  and  could  dis- 
tinguish only  seven;  and  to  him  they  were  without  mean- 
ing. To  modern  chemists  these  dark  lines  are  full  of 
the  deepest  interest,  and  upon  them  an  immense  amount 
of  study  has  been  bestowed. 

Fraunhofer,  in  1815,  by  improved  optical  arrangements, 
had  increased  Wollaston's  seven  dark  lines  to  five  hun- 
dred and  ninety ;  and  a  few  years  later,  Sir  David 
Brewster  mapped  with  great  care  nearly  two  thousand 
in  the  portion  of  the  spectrum  from  red  to  violet.  Thus 
8 


114  CHEMISTRY    OF    THE    SUN. 

rapidly  does  persistent  scientific  investigation  unfold  the 
mysteries  of  nature,  and  extort  secrets  which  for  years 
seemed  hidden  in  impenetrable  darkness. 

Professor  Kirchhoff,  in  his  experiments,  employed  four 
prisms,  and  the  workmanship  was  of  the  most  perfect 
kind.  The  dark  lines  upon  the  spectrum  were  observed 
through  a  telescope  having  a  magnifying  power  of  forty ; 
and  thus  he  was  enabled  to  attain  a  minute  distinctness 
of  observation  which  far  excelled  that  of  all  previous 
observers.  He  saw  vast  numbers  of  dark  lines,  and  with 
marvellous  skill  he  measured  their  relative  distances,  and 
mapped  them,  as  the  geographer  maps  rivers  and  islands, 
or  as  the  surveyor  triangulates  and  marks  out  the  main 
features  of  a  country.  Splendid  indeed  are  the  results 
of  the  researches  of  the  German  philosopher,  and  his 
name  is  imperishable. 

But  it  is  time  to  inquire  how  light  reveals  the  con- 
stitution of  earthy  materials,  or  how  it  can  afford  us 
information  regarding  the  chemical  nature  of  the  solar 
atmosphere.  Every  one  who  has  witnessed  a  pyrotechni- 
cal  display,  remembers  the  brilliant  red  and  green  fires 
which  so  dazzled  the  sight,  and  excited  the  admiration. 
The  beautiful  lights  were  produced  by  burning  the  salts 
of  certain  metals :  the  crimson  came  from  the  salts  of 
strontia ;  baryta  and  copper  gave  green;  soda,  yellow, 
potassa,  white,  &c.  It  has  long  been  known  that  these 
metals,  or  their  salts,  afforded  certain  peculiar  colors 
when  burned  at  a  high  heat ;  but  it  was  not  knc  wn  until 
recently,  that  all  metals  and  all  elementary  substances 
emit,  when  heated,  a  characteristic  kind  of  light  —  a  light 
peculiar  to  each  element.  By  this  discovery,  the  great 


CHEMISTRY    OF   THE    SUN.  1 15 

principle  of  spectrum  analysis  was  revealed ;  and  to  it 
we  are  indebted  for  all  the  sublime  revelations  which 
have  flowed  from  this  new  method  of  research. 

Every  element,  whether  it  be  a  gas,  a  solid,  or  a  liquid, 
when  heated,  emits  a  light,  so  distinct,  so  peculiar,  that 
we  have  only  to  see  and  examine  the  light,  to  know  what 
particuliar  element  is  being  heated.  It  follows,  if  we  have 
sixty  or  more  elementary  bodies,  we  must  have  that 
number  of  different  impressions  produced  upon  the 
visual  organs  when  they  are  ignited  or  heated.  If  we 
are  possessed  of  a  perfect  knowledge  of  these  peculiar- 
ities, and  understand  how  to  arrange  substances  for 
observation,  it  is  clear  we  must  have  a  means  of  analysis, 
or  of  learning  of  what  bodies  are  composed,  entirely 
independent  of  the  use  of  test  tubes,  blow-pipes,  or  re- 
agents of  any  description.  It  is  only  in  the  gaseous 
state  that  each  kind  of  matter  emits  the  light  peculiar 
to  itself.  How  can  solids  be  made  gaseous?  How  can 
gases  be  heated  so  as  to  become  luminous?  Every  sub- 
stance can  be  volatilized  and  made  gaseous,  no  matter 
how  refractory  it  may  be ;  and  all  flame  is  nothing  else 
than  heated  gas.  By  the  lighting  of  a  candle  we  estab- 
lish miniature  gas  works.  The  solid  wax  or  tallow 
is  changed  into  gas,  and  the  gas  is  heated  until  it  be- 
comes luminous,  and  affords  light.  By  other  methods, 
gold,  silver,  copper,  iron,  &c.,  can  be  changed  to  the 
aeriform  state,  and  burned. 

If  we  wish  to  examine  the  flame  of  the  metals  of  the 
alkalies,  as  sodium  or  potassium,  we  have  only  to  take 
one  of  their  salts  (the  chloride),  and  bring  a  small  quantity 
into  the  flame  o  *  a  spirit  lamp.  It  immediately  volatilizes, 


Il6  CHEMISTRY   OF    THE    SUN. 

and  is  heated  so  as  to  tinge  the  flame  with  its  pe:  nliar 
color.  In  order  to  become  acquainted  with  the  exact 
nature  of  the  light  which  bodies  in  the  condition  of 
luminous  gases  emit,  their  light  must  be  examined  other- 
wise than  by  the  naked  eye.  We  must  examine  ^he 
spectra  which  the  light  affords ;  and  to  this  end,  an 
instrument  corresponding  with  that  used  for  examining 
the  solar  ray  is  employed.  The  light  from  the  heated 
substance  is  passed  through  a  slit  in  a  tube,  and  is  re- 
fracted by  prisms,  and  the  spectra  viewed  by  the  aid  of 
a  high  magnifying  power.  The  instrument  is  called  a 
spectroscope. 

We  remember  the  surpassing  beauty  of  the  spectrum 
of  a  ray  of  sunlight :  let  us  notice  the  difference  afforded 
by  a  ray  proceeding  from  heated  sodium.  To  obtain 
this  light,  we  throw  into  the  flame  of  an  alcohol  lamp  a 
grain  or  two  of  common  salt  (chloride  of  sodium),  and 
place  it  before  the  slit  in  •  the  tube.  Now,  by  looking 
through  the  telescope  we  observe  the  spectrum  of  sodium  ; 
and  what  a  contrast  it  presents  to  that  of  sunlight !  It 
consists  of  two  very  fine  bright  yellow  lines  placed  close 
together :  all  the  rest  of  the  field  is  perfectly  dark. 
No  other  substance  in  nature  affords  a  spectrum  like 
this :  when  it  is  seen,  sodium  in  some  form  is  the  pro- 
ducer. If  we  had  employed  the  chloride  of  potassium 
instead  of  the  soda,  the  spectrum  would  have  afforded 
a  portion  of  continuous  light  in  the  centre,  bounded  by 
a  bright  red  and  a  bright  violet  line  at  either  end. 
Other  metals  would  in  like  manner  have  afforded  their 
peculiar  and  distinct  spectra.  None  of  the  bright  lines 
overlap,  or  interfere  with  each  other ;  and  if  we  should 


CHEMISTRY    OF   THE    SUN.  -        1 17 

put  into  the  flame  chlorides  of  all  the  metals,  if  it  were 
possible  to  obtain  them,  all  the  different  characteristic 
lines  would  come  out  perfectly  clear  and  distinct. 

From  these  statements,  it  follows  that  if  the  light  of  the 
sun  was  prod  iced  entirely  by  heated  sodium,  the  spectra 
would  afford  only  the  two  yellow  lines,  and  dark  lines 
would  cover  all  the  rest.  The  dark  lines  indicate  the 
absence  of  ot.ier  kinds  of  rays.  They  are  shadows,  as  it 
were,  in  the  background.  If  two,  or  three,  or  a  dozen 
elements,  similar  to  those  which  enter  into  the  construc- 
tion of  our  planet,  were  being  volatilized  and  heated 
at  the  great  central  source  of  solar  light  and  heat, 
characteristic  spectra  would  be  afforded,  indicating  their 
presence.  Bright  lines  would  indicate  the  presence,  the 
dark  lines  the  absence,  of  certain  substances  in  direct 
sunlight. 

We  are  now  prepared  to  understand  in  a  general 
way  the  nature  of  the  new  method  of  analysis  by  which 
sunlight,  and  light  from  every  source,  is  made  to  reveal 
the  character  or  chemical  composition  of  the  body  from 
which  it  emanates. 

Before  proceeding  to  remark  further  upon  this  depart- 
ment of  the  subject,  let  us  consider  briefly  the  physical 
character  of  the  sun.  The  science  of  solar  physics  is  not 
far  enough  advanced  to  give  us  much  positive  knowledge 
regarding  its  physical  structure.  Research  has,  however, 
rendered  very  nearly  certain  one  point  of  much  interest. 
This  relates  to  the  condition  of  the  matter  from  whence 
proceed  the  solar  light  and  heat.  There  are  two  strong 
experimental  proofs  that  actual  combustion  is  going  on  at 
the  sun,  or  tome  process  analogous  to  it,  and  that  matter 


Il8  CHEMISTRY    OF    1   |E    SUN. 

exists  there  in  the  condition  of  flame.  The  first  of  these 
proofs  is  afforded  by  the  nature  of  the  light  emitted.  All 
bodies  rendered  incandescent  by  heat,  which  are  in  the 
liquid  or  solid  state,  emit  invariably  polarized  light ; 
while  bodies  which  are  gaseous,  when  rendered  incan- 
descent, emit  light  in  its  natural  state,  or  unpolarized. 
Thus  the  physical  condition  of  a  body  may  be  distin- 
guished, when  incandescent,  by  examining  the  light  it 
affords.  On  applying  these  tests  to  the  direct  light  of 
the  sun,  it  is  found  to  be  in  the  unpolarized  or  natural 
condition  ;  hence  the  matter  from  which  the  light  pro- 
ceeds must  be  in  the  gaseous  state.  The  character  of 
the  solar  spectrum  affords  another  or  the  second  form  of 
proof  that  flame  exists  at  the  sun.  If  we  heat  a  metallic 
body  to  a  white  heat,  and  bring  it  in  connection  with  a 
spectroscope,  and  examine  its  light,  we  shall  find  that 
the  spectrum  is  crossed  by  no  dark  lines — they  are  all 
absent.  If  we  examine  any  solid  or  liquid  incandescent 
body,  the  dark  lines  are  wanting  in  the  spectrum.  Not 
so  with  the  light  from  incandescent  gaseous  bodies,  or 
from  actual  flame  ;  this  invariably  furnishes  the  dark  lines 
in  greater  or  less  abundance.  The  solar  spectrum,  as  we 
have  seen,  is  crossed  by  thousands  of  dark  lines ;  hence 
the  light  must  proceed  from  volatilized  or  gaseous  i '  atter 
intensely  heated. 

It  is  singular  that  Kirchhoff  adopts  the  same  theory 
regarding  the  physical  constitution  of  the  sun  as  that  of 
Galileo,  who  wrote  so  many  ages  since.  It  should  be 
said,  however,  that  this  theory  has  received  but  few  essen- 
tial modifications  from  modern  science.  To  explain  it, 
it  is  necessary  to  allude  to  the  dark  spots  which  are  so 


CHEMISTRY    OF   THE    S.fN.  119 

often  seen  upon  the  sun's  disk,  and  which  have  excited 
most  intense  interest  among  astronomers  for  centuries. 
These  spots,  viewed  through  a  telescope  of  high  power, 
appeal  to  be  an  intensely  black,  irregularly-shaped  patch, 
edged  with  a  penumbral  fringe,  the  brightness  of  the 
general  surface  of  the  sun  gradually  fading  away  into  the 
blackness  of  the  spot.  Dr.  Peters,  while  connected  with 
the  Observatory  at  Naples,  computed  eight  hundred  and 
thirteen  heliographical  places  of  two  hundred  and  eighty- 
six  spots.  His  paper,  read  at  the  Providence  meeting  of 
the  American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science, 
is  an  exceedingly  interesting  one.  The  spots  upon  the 
sun  have  a  motion  of  their  own,  and  they  appear  and 
disappear  in  a  most  singular  manner.  New  spots  gen- 
erally break  out  to  the  east  of  old  ones,  and  have  a  motion 
towards  the  west,  and  the  motions  in  longitude  are  far 
more  considerable  than  in  latitude.  These  movements 
are,  in  some  instances,  at  the  rate  of  four  hundred  miles 
an  hour.  Two  zones  upon  the  sun's  surface  are  particu- 
larly fruitful  in  spots,  the  maximums  occurring  at  the 
parallels  of  21°  of  north  latitude  and  17°  of  south. 
When  a  spot  is  about  to  appear,  a  sort  of  bubbling  agi- 
tation in  the  luminous  mass  is  seen ;  a  small,  dark  point 
is  rapidly  developed,  and  in  the  course  of  a  day  the  full 
area  of  the  spot  is  attained.  They  continue  of  full  size 
sometimes  thirty  or  even  fifty  days,  .and  then  notches 
begin  to  form  in  their  margins ;  these  grow  larger  and 
deeper,  until,  by  a  sort  of  electric  flash,  the  realms  of 
light  close  up,  and  the  spot  is  gone.  The  magnitude  of 
these  spots  is  in  proportion  to  the  magnitude  of  the  sun 
itself.  An  object  ninety-five  millions  of  miles  distant,  to 


I2O  CHEMISTRY    OF    THE    SUN. 

be  barely  visible,  must  have  a  diameter  of  four  hundred 
and  sixty  miles,  and  an  area  of  one  hundred  and  sixty-six 
thousand  square  miles.  Therefore  the  smallest  spot 
obse  ved  must  be  of  this  immense  size. 

Among  the  many  spots  recorded,  one  by  Mayer  had  an 
area  of  fifteen  hundred  millions  of  square  miles,  or 
about  thirty  times  the  surface  of  the  earth. 

What  are  the  spots  ?  Galileo  described  them  as  being 
clouds  floating  in  the  gaseous  atmosphere  of  the  sun, 
appearing  to  us  as  dark  spots  on  the  bright  body  of  the 
luminary.  Sir  William  Herschel  supposes  that  the  centre 
of  the  spot  reveals  a  portion  of  the  dark  surface  of  the 
sun,  seen  through  two  overlying  openings,  one  formed  in 
a  photosphere,  or  luminous  atmosphere,  surrounding  the 
dark,  solid  nucleus,  and  the  other  in  a  lower  opaque  or 
reflecting  atmosphere. 

KirchhofF  says  that  the  most  probable  supposition  which 
can  be  made  respecting  the  sun's  constitution  is,  that  it 
consists  of  a  solid  or  liquid  nucleus,  heated  to  a  tempera- 
ture of  the  brightest  whiteness,  surrounded  by  an  atmos- 
phere of  somewhat  lower  temperature. 

What  causes  the  spots?  Dr.  Peters  regards  them  as 
caused  by  volcanoes  upon  the  solid  mass  of  the  sun. 
These  volcanoes,  in  a  state  of  high  activity,  would  send 
up  vast  volumes  of  gaseous  matter,  which,  by  its  disrup- 
tive force,  would  part  the  luminous  covering,  and  expose 
to  view  the  opaque  body  within. 

M.  De  la  Rue,  in  connection  with  Balfour  Stewart, 
Esq.,  and  Benjamin  Loewy,  Esq.,  of  the  Kew  Observa- 
tory, England,  has  very  recently  published  a  memoir  for 
private  circulation,  in  which  the  ground  is  taken  that 


C  IEMISTRY    OF   THE    SUN.  121 

they  are  caused,  or  greatly  influenced,  by  external  dis- 
turbing forces,  and  that  the  planets  Venus  and  Jupiter 
have  much  to  do  with  the  behavior  of  the  spots.  Venus, 
being  very  near  the  sun,  influences  it  more  than  any 
other  body,  and  causes  vast  mechanical  changes.  The 
molecular  state  of  the  sun  is  exceedingly  sensitive,  the 
least  withdrawal  of  heat  causing  condensation  or  cooling, 
and  this  altered  state  of  the  photosphere  appearing  like 
dark  patches  upon  the  sun's  disk.  The  reasoning,  sup- 
ported as  it  is  by  a  series  of  patient  observations,  calcu- 
lations, and  experiments,  is  certainly  worthy  of  high 
regard  and  confidence. 

If  this  view  is  correct,  why  may  not  our  seasons  be 
greatly  modified  by  the  withdrawal  of  solar  heat,  by 
planetary  influences?  And  again,  why  may  not  the 
moon,  being  a  much  cooler  body  than  the  earth,  in- 
fluence the  seasons  and  the  weather  upon  our  planet? 
We  evidently  have  yet  much  to  learn  regarding  these 
questions  in  physical  science. 

It  has  been  conceived  possible,  by  some  philosophers, 
that  the  sun  may  be  peopled  by  beings  essentially  like 
ourselves,  the  opaque  mass  upon  which  they  are  placed 
being  protected  from  the  intense  light  and  heat  of  the 
luminous  covering  by  some  non-conducting  media,  adapt- 
ed to  the  purpose.  According  to  Kirchhoff,  this  notion  is 
wholly  untenabl ;,  as  he  undertakes  to  show  that  the  idea 
of  an  intensely  ignited  photosphere,  surrounding  a  cold 
nucleus,  is  a  physical  absurdity.  As  interesting  specula- 
tions, the  different  views  of  different  men  are  worthy  of 
notice. 

The   opinion   of    all   observers   seems   to   coincide    in 


122  CHEMISTRY    OF   THE    SIN. 

regard  to  the  nature  of  the  outer  coverings  of  the  sun, 
that  it  must  be  matter  in  a  highly  heated  condition ;  the 
state  of  the  central  mass  is  a  question  about  which  there 
is  a  conflict  of  views. 

From  a  careful  consideration  of  all  experimental  ob- 
servations recorded,  it  seems  highly  probable  that  the 
sun  is  an  incandescent  mass ;  that  it  is  a  vast  globe  of 
matter  in  a  state  of  ignition,  fusion,  or  volatilization. 
The  idea  that  any  process,  analogous  to  that  of  common 
combustion,  is  going  on  there,  seems  to  be  beset  with 
formidable  difficulties.  The  researches,  however,  of 
Mayer,  Grove,  Helmholtz,  and  Tyndall  tend  to  remove 
one  of  the  most  serious  obstacles  in  the  way  of  entertain- 
ing this  belief;  and  that  relates  to  a  supply  of  material  to 
support  so  enormous  and  interminable  combustion.  The 
amount  of  heat  emitted  by  the  sun  every  minute,  is  com- 
petent to  boil  twelve  thousand  millions  of  cubic  miles  of 
ice-cold  water.  No  combustion,  no  chemical  affinity 
with  which  we  are  acquainted,  would  be  competent  to 
produce  such  a  temperature.  The  heat  is  radiated  into 
space,  and  out  of  2.300  millions  of  parts  sent  forth,  the 
earth  receives  only  one  -part.  It  is  possible  that  aste- 
roids, or  meteoric  masses,  falling  into  the  sun,  may  fur- 
nish a  supply  of  material  for  making  good  the  immense 
loss  of  heat.  There  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  space 
is  stocked  with  these  bodies.  That  peculiar  haze,  or 
envelope,  which  surrounds  the  sun,  called  the  zodiacal 
light,  is  probably  a  crowd  of  meteors ;  and  moving  ab 
they  do  in  a  resisting  medium,  they  must  approach  the 
sun  and  rain  into  it  with  irresistible  force.  This  would 


CHEMISTRY    OF   THE    SUN.  133 

constitute  a  source  from   which  the  annual  loss  of  heat 
might  be  made  good. 

The  instant  these  bodies  touch  the  focus  of  heat,  they 
must  be  volatilized,  and  themselves  afford  light  and  heat. 
Whatever  might  be  their  composition,  the  atoms  would 
exist  in  a  form  similar  to  the  sodium  in  the  flame  of  the 
alcohol  lamp,  spoken  of  in  the  first  part  of  this  essay. 
They  would  be  in  condition  suitable  for  analysis  by 
means  of  the  spectroscope.  Although  the  incandescence 
of  these  bodies  takes  place  at  such  an  immense  dis- 
tance from  our  field  of  observation,  yet  the  light  they 
emit  reaches  us,  and  by  means  of  the  spectra  afforded, 
we  may  learn  something  regarding  their  chemical  com- 
position. If  the  rays  of  light  which  form  the  solar 
spectrum  have  been  filtered  through  the  vapors  of  iron, 
or  nickel,  or  copper,  existing  at  the  sun,  these  metals  will 
manifest  themselves  there.  And  do  they?  They  cer- 
tainly do.  The  spectrum  of  sunlight  shows  the  presence 
of  iron,  chromium,  nickel,  cobalt,  barium,  copper,  zinc, 
&c.  —  the  same  metals  which  are  common  to  our  earth. 
This  result  is  no  myth,  no  vague  supposition,  no  possible 
contingency.  We  do  know  something  of  the  chemical 
nature  of  the  sun.  A  deeper  penetration  is  made  into 
the  mysteries  of  the  far  distant  spheres  ;  we  have  moved 
one  step  farther  in  that  onward  march  of  science  which 
seems  destined  to  overcome  all  obstacles,  and  bring  us 
into  intimate  communion  with  the  vast  universe  of  God. 


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